Innate immunity is an ancient and conserved defense mechanism. Although host responses toward various pathogens have been delineated, how these responses are orchestrated in a whole animal is less understood. Through an unbiased genome-wide study performed in Caenorhabditis elegans, we identified a conserved function for endodermal GATA transcription factors in regulating local epithelial innate immune responses. Gene expression and functional RNAi-based analyses identified the tissuespecific GATA transcription factor ELT-2 as a major regulator of an early intestinal protective response to infection with the human bacterial pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa. In the adult worm, ELT-2 is required specifically for infection responses and survival on pathogen but makes no significant contribution to gene expression associated with intestinal maintenance or to resistance to cadmium, heat, and oxidative stress. We further demonstrate that this function is conserved, because the human endodermal transcription factor GATA6 has a protective function in lung epithelial cells exposed to P. aeruginosa. These findings expand the repertoire of innate immunity mechanisms and illuminate a yet-unknown function of endodermal GATA proteins.gene expression ͉ innate immunity ͉ infection ͉ ELT-2 ͉ Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Despite its essential role in antigen presentation, enhancing proteasomal processing is an unexploited strategy for improving vaccines. pepVIII, an anticancer vaccine targeting EGFRvIII, has been tested in several trials for glioblastoma. We examined 20 peptides in silico and experimentally, which showed that a tyrosine substitution (Y6-pepVIII) maximizes proteasome cleavage and survival in a subcutaneous tumor model in mice. In an intracranial glioma model, Y6-pepVIII showed a 62 and 31% improvement in median survival compared to control animals and pepVIII-vaccinated mice. Y6-pepVIII vaccination altered tumor-infiltrating lymphocyte subsets and expression of PD-1 on intratumoral T cells. Combination with anti–PD-1 therapy cured 45% of the Y6-pepVIII–vaccinated mice but was ineffective for pepVIII-treated mice. Liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry analysis of proteasome-digested pepVIII and Y6-pepVIII revealed that most fragments were similar but more abundant in Y6-pepVIII digests and 77% resulted from proteasome-catalyzed peptide splicing (PCPS). We identified 10 peptides that bound human and murine MHC class I. Nine were PCPS products and only one peptide was colinear with EGFRvIII, indicating that PCPS fragments may be a component of MHC class I recognition. Despite not being colinear with EGFRvIII, two of three PCPS products tested were capable of increasing survival when administered independently as vaccines. We hypothesize that the immune response to a vaccine represents the collective contribution from multiple PCPS and linear products. Our work suggests a strategy to increase proteasomal processing of a vaccine that results in an augmented immune response and enhanced survival in mice.