Background Chronic diarrhea is a common disease causing morbidity and mortality of captive rhesus macaques (RMs, Macaca mulatta). Chronic diarrhea in RMs is typically characterized by long-term diarrhea and a weak response to antibiotic treatment. Diarrhea is also a common disease in humans and can cause death. However, the etiology of about half of diarrheal cases of humans is still unclear. Therefore, we performed shotgun metagenomic sequencing to characterize the differences in the gut microbiome and resistome of chronic diarrhea RMs and asymptomatic individuals. Results Our results showed Lactobacillus spp. (mainly L. johnsonii, L. reuteri and L. amylovorus) were significantly depleted in chronic diarrhea RM guts compared to asymptomatic individuals (5.2 vs 42.4%). Functional annotation of genes suggested these Lactobacillus spp. carried genes involved in the adhesion of intestinal epithelial cells and production of bacteriocin. Chronic diarrhea RM guts also had a significantly greater abundance of many other gut bacteria, including mucin-degrading bacteria and opportunistic pathogens. The metabolic pathways of chronic diarrhea RM gut microbiome were enriched in aerobactin biosynthesis, while the metabolic pathways of asymptomatic RM gut microbiome were enriched in the production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs). Chronic diarrhea RM guts had a significantly greater abundance of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs), such as ermF, aph(3’)-IIIa, ermB, and floR. The strains isolated from feces and tissue fluid of chronic diarrhea RMs had higher resistance rates to the majority of tested antibiotics, but not cephamycin and carbapenem antibiotics. Gut microbial composition comparisons showed that several captive nonhuman primate (NHP) guts were more similar to the guts of humans with a non-westernized diet than humans with a westernized diet. Chronic diarrhea RM gut microbiome was strikingly similar to rural-living humans with diarrhea and humans with a non-westernized diet than asymptomatic RMs. Conclusions Our results suggested chronic diarrhea significantly altered the composition and metabolic pathways of the RM gut microbiome. The frequent use of antibiotics caused antibiotic resistance in chronic diarrhea RM gut microbiome with serious consequences for individual treatment and survival. The findings of this study will help us to improve the effective prevention and treatment of diarrhea in RMs.

Purpose: To evaluate the effect of JUNCAO-cultivated Ganoderma lucidum spent mushroom substratehot water extract (SMSG-HWE) on murine immunity. Methods: Five groups of mice (n = 10) received water with 0.00, 0.14, 0.28, 0.84, or 1.68 g/kg of SWSG-HWE, respectively, orally for 30 days. Various biochemical parameters of serum and tissues, including spleen and thymus indices, were determined were determined for the mice Results: The following markers were significantly higher in the 0.84 g/kg SMSG-HWE group than in the control group (all p < 0.05): splenic lymphocyte proliferation, a marker of cell-mediate immunity; dinitrofluorobenzene-induced delayed hypersensitivity; and the number of haemolytic plaque-forming cells, as a marker of humoral immunity. Phagocytic rate, which evaluates mononuclear-macrophage function as a marker of innate immunity, was significantly higher in both the 0.84 g/kg HWE and 1.68 g/kg SWSG-HWE groups, while phagocytic index was significantly higher in the 0.28 g/kg SWSG-HWE group, compared to the control group (all p < 0.05). Natural killer cell activity also was significantly enhanced in the 0.84 g/kg and 1.68 g/kg SWSG-HWE groups (p < 0.05). Conclusion: These findings indicate that SWSG-HWE enhances murine immune function, and may be suitable as a potential additive in animal feed.

Motor stereotypic behaviors (MSBs) are common in captive rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) and human with psychiatric diseases. However, large gaps remain in our understanding of the molecular mechanisms that mediate this behavior and whether there are similarities between human and non-human primates that exhibit this behavior, especially at gene expression and gut microbiota levels. The present study combined behavior, blood transcriptome, and gut microbiota data of two groups of captive macaques to explore this issue (i.e., MSB macaques with high MSB exhibition and those with low: control macaques). Observation data showed that MSB macaques spent the most time on MSB (33.95%), while the CONTROL macaques allocated more time to active (30.99%) and general behavior (30.0%), and only 0.97% of their time for MSB. Blood transcriptome analysis revealed 382 differentially expressed genes between the two groups, with 339 upregulated genes significantly enriched in inflammation/immune response-related pathway. We also identified upregulated pro-inflammatory genes TNFRSF1A, IL1R1, and IL6R. Protein–protein interaction network analysis screened nine hub genes that were all related to innate immune response, and our transcriptomic results were highly similar to findings in human psychiatric disorders. We found that there were significant differences in the beta-diversity of gut microbiota between MSB and CONTROL macaques. Of which Phascolarctobacterium, the producer of short chain fatty acids (SCFAs), was less abundant in MSB macaques. Meanwhile, PICRUSTs predicted that SCFAs intermediates biosynthesis and metabolic pathways were significantly downregulated in MSB macaques. Together, our study revealed that the behavioral, gene expression levels, and gut microbiota composition in MSB macaques was different to controls, and MSB was closely linked with inflammation and immune response. This work provides valuable information for future in-depth investigation of MSB and human psychiatric diseases.

Aims To understand the species composition, the relative content, and diversity of nitrogen fixing bacteria in Cenchrus fungigraminus rhizophere, and to screen nitrogen-fixing bacteria to study their potential role in plant growth promotion. Methods Soil samples were collected from 4 depth (G1, G2, G3 and G4) of C. fungigraminus rhizophere and physical and chemical properties were determined. The diversity and abundance of nitrogen-fixing bacteria and nifH gene copy were analyzed. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria were screened and selected for studying the C. fungigraminus seedlings growth promotion. Results The highest diversity and abundance of nitrogen-fixing bacteria were observed in C. fungigraminus rhizosphere (G2), which mainly included Proteobacteria (93.91%), Actinobacteria (0.42%), Firmicutes (0.18%) and significantly effected by total nitrogen, available nitrogen and depth. The nifH gene copy was also highest (1.56 ± 0.17×107 copies/g) in G2. Rhizobium pusense NO.8 and NO.28 were isolated in G1 and G2, respectively, with nitrogenase activity of 1.45 ± 0.04 and 2.00 ± 0.07 U/g. The promotion experiment revealed that plant height, root length, leaf length of C. fungigramminus seedlings treated with both strains were significantly increased 56.79%, 76.99% and 55.71%, and significantly increased on moisture and total nitrogen of planting soil compare with control (P < 0.05). The available nitrogen, organic matter and organic carbon in soil with R. pusense NO.28 have significantly increased 3.09, 5.77 and 5.77 times. Conclusion Nitrogen-fixing bacteria in C. fungigraminus rhizosphere soil is rich and play a significant role in promoting its seedlings growth. The study provides the development of PGPRs from C. fungigraminus rhizosphere to be biological fertilizers.

Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharide peptide (GLPP) is one of the most abundant constituents of Ganoderma lucidum (G. lucidum), with a wide range of functional activities. The present study investigated the immunomodulatory effects of GLPP in cyclophosphamide (CTX)-induced immunosuppressive mice. The results showed that 100 mg/kg/day of GLPP administration significantly alleviated CTX-induced immune damage by improving immune organ indexes, earlap swelling rate, the index of carbon phagocytosis and clearance value, secretion of cytokines (TNF-α, IFN-γ, and IL-2), and immunoglobulin A(IgA) in the mice. Furthermore, ultra-performance liquid chromatography with mass/mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) was conducted to identify the metabolites, followed by biomarker and pathway analysis. The results showed that GLPP treatment alleviated CTX-induced alterations in the fecal metabolome profile, including arachidonic acid (AA), leukotriene D4 (LTD4), indole-3-ethanol, and formyltetrahydrofolate (CF), by reversing citric acid, malic acid, cortisol, and oleic acid. These results support the concept that GLPP exhibits immunomodulatory activity via the folate cycle, methionine cycle, TCA cycle, fatty acid biosynthesis and metabolism, glycerophospholipid metabolism, AA metabolism, and cAMP pathways. In conclusion, the results could be helpful to understand the use of GLPP to clarify the immunomodulatory mechanism and be used as immunostimulants to prevent CTX-induced side effects in the immune system.