Sodium plays a key role in determining the basal excitability of the nervous systems through the resting "leak" Na(+) permeabilities, but the molecular identities of the TTX- and Cs(+)-resistant Na(+) leak conductance are totally unknown. Here we show that this conductance is formed by the protein NALCN, a substantially uncharacterized member of the sodium/calcium channel family. Unlike any of the other 20 family members, NALCN forms a voltage-independent, nonselective cation channel. NALCN mutant mice have a severely disrupted respiratory rhythm and die within 24 hours of birth. Brain stem-spinal cord recordings reveal reduced neuronal firing. The TTX- and Cs(+)-resistant background Na(+) leak current is absent in the mutant hippocampal neurons. The resting membrane potentials of the mutant neurons are relatively insensitive to changes in extracellular Na(+) concentration. Thus, NALCN, a nonselective cation channel, forms the background Na(+) leak conductance and controls neuronal excitability.

Many Ca(2+) channel proteins have been detected in mammalian sperm, but only the four CATSPER channels have been clearly shown to be required for male fertility. Ca(2+) entry through the principal piece-localized CATSPER channels has been implicated in the activation of hyperactivated motility. In the present study, we show that the Ca(2+) entry also triggers a tail-to-head Ca(2+) propagation in the mouse sperm. When activated with 8-Br-cAMP, 8-Br-cGMP, or alkaline depolarization, a CATSPER-dependent increase in intracellular Ca(2+) concentration starts in the principal piece, propagates through the midpiece, and reaches the head in a few seconds. The Ca(2+) propagation through the midpiece leads to a Ca(2+)-dependent increase in NADH fluorescence. In addition, CatSper1-mutant sperm have lower intracellular ATP levels than wild-type sperm. Thus, a Ca(2+) influx in the principal piece through CATSPER channels can not only initiate hyperactivated motility, but can also trigger a tail-to-head Ca(2+) propagation that leads to an increase in [NADH] and may regulate ATP homeostasis.

Key points• Neurons can be damaged when tissues are stretched or swollen; while astrocytes can contribute to this process, the mechanosensitive response from neurons is unclear.• We show here that isolated retinal ganglion cell neurons respond to mechanical strain with a rapid, sustained release of the neurotransmitter ATP.• The conduit for ATP release was through pannexin hemichannels, with probenicid, carbenoxelone and 10 panx inhibiting release.• Once released, this ATP acts back on the neurons to autostimulate lethal P2X 7 receptors, as A438079, AZ 10606120 and zinc reduced currents in whole cell patch clamp recordings.• Blocking release of ATP through pannexin channels, or activation of P2X 7 receptors, might be neuroprotective for stretched or swollen neurons.• Stretch-dependent release of ATP through neuronal pannexins, combined with the autostimulation of the P2X 7 receptors, provides a new pathway by which neuronal activity and health can be altered by mechanical strain independently of glial activity.Abstract Mechanical deformation produces complex effects on neuronal systems, some of which can lead to dysfunction and neuronal death. While astrocytes are known to respond to mechanical forces, it is not clear whether neurons can also respond directly. We examined mechanosensitive ATP release and the physiological response to this release in isolated retinal ganglion cells. Purified ganglion cells released ATP upon swelling. Release was blocked by carbenoxolone, probenecid or peptide 10 panx, implicating pannexin channels as conduits. Mechanical stretch of retinal ganglion cells also triggered a pannexin-dependent ATP release. Whole cell patch clamp recording demonstrated that mild swelling induced the activation of an Ohmic cation current with linear kinetics. The current was inhibited by removal of extracellular ATP with apyrase, by inhibition of the P2X 7 receptor with A438079, zinc, or AZ 10606120, and by pannexin blockers carbenoxolone and probenecid. Probenecid also inhibited the regulatory volume decrease observed after swelling isolated neurons. Together, these observations indicate mechanical strain triggers ATP release directly from retinal ganglion cells and that this released ATP autostimulates P2X 7 receptors. Since extracellular ATP levels in the retina increase with elevated intraocular pressure, and stimulation of P2X 7 receptors on retinal ganglion cells can be lethal, this autocrine response may impact ganglion cells in glaucoma. It remains to be determined whether the autocrine stimulation of J. Xia and J. C. Lim contributed equally to this work. purinergic receptors is a general response to a mechanical deformation in neurons, or whether preventing ATP release through pannexin channels and blocking activation of the P2X 7 receptor, is neuroprotective for stretched neurons.

Four CatSper ion channel subunit genes (CatSpers 1-4) are required for sperm cell hyperactivation and male fertility. The four proteins assemble (presumably as a tetramer) to form a sperm-specific, alkalinization-activated Ca 2؉ -selective channel. We set out to identify proteins associating with CatSper that might help explain its unique role in spermatozoa. Using a transgenic approach, a CatSper1 complex was purified from mouse testis that contained heat shock protein 70-2, a testisspecific chaperone, and CatSper␤, a novel protein with two putative transmembrane-spanning domains. Like the CatSper ion channel subunits, CatSper␤ was restricted to testis and localized to the principal piece of the sperm tail. CatSper␤ protein is absent in CatSper1 ؊/؊ sperm, suggesting that it is required for trafficking or formation of a stable channel complex. CatSper␤ is the first identified auxiliary protein to the CatSper channel.

As ATP released from astrocytes can modulate many neural signaling systems, the triggers of and pathways for this ATP release are important. Here, the ability of mechanical strain to trigger ATP release through pannexin channels, and the effects of sustained strain on pannexin expression, were examined in rat optic nerve head astrocytes. Astrocytes released ATP when subjected to 5% equibiaxial strain or to hypotonic swelling. While astrocytes expressed mRNA for pannexins 1–3, connexin 43 and VNUT, pharmacological analysis suggested a predominant role for pannexins in mechanosensitive ATP release, with Rho kinases contributing. Astrocytes from panx1−/− mice had reduced baseline and stimulated levels of extracellular ATP, confirming the role for pannexins. Swelling astrocytes triggered a regulatory volume decrease that was inhibited by apyrase or probenecid. The swelling–induced rise in calcium was inhibited by P2X7 receptor antagonists A438079 and AZ10606120, in addition to apyrase and carbenoxelone. Extended stretch of astrocytes in vitro upregulated expression of panx1 and panx2 mRNA. A similar upregulation was observed in vivo in optic nerve head tissue from the Tg-MYOCY437H mouse model of chronic glaucoma; genes for panx1, panx2 and panx3 were increased while immunohistochemistry confirmed increased expression of pannexin 1 protein. In summary, astrocytes released ATP in response to mechanical strain, with pannexin 1 the predominant efflux pathway. Sustained strain upregulated pannexins in vitro and in vivo. Together these findings provide a mechanism by which extracellular ATP remains elevated under chronic mechanical strain, as found in the optic nerve head of patients with glaucoma.