Intermediate volatility organic compound (IVOC) emissions from a large cargo vessel were characterized under realworld operating conditions using an on-board measurement system. Test ship fuel-based emission factors (EFs) of total IVOCs were determined for two fuel types and seven operating conditions. The average total IVOC EF was 1003 ± 581 mg•kg-fuel −1 , approximately 0.76 and 0.29 times the EFs of primary organic aerosol (POA) emissions from low-sulfur fuel (LSF, 0.38 wt % S) and high-sulfur fuel (HSF, 1.12 wt % S), respectively. The average total IVOC EF from LSF was 2.4 times that from HSF. The average IVOC EF under low engine load (15%) was 0.5−1.6 times higher than those under 36%−74% loads. An unresolved complex mixture (UCM) contributed 86.1 ± 1.9% of the total IVOC emissions. Ship secondary organic aerosol (SOA) production was estimated to be 546.5 ± 284.1 mg•kg-fuel −1 ; IVOCs contributed 98.9 ± 0.9% of the produced SOA on average. Fuel type was the dominant determinant of ship IVOC emissions, IVOC volatility distributions, and SOA production. The ship emitted more IVOC mass, produced higher proportions of volatile organic components, and produced more SOA mass when fueled with LSF than when fueled with HSF. When reducing ship POA emissions, more attention should be paid to commensurate control of ship SOA formation potential.

During the COVID-19 lockdown period (from January 23 to February 29, 2020), ambient PM 2.5 concentrations in the Yangtze River Delta (YRD) region were observed to be much lower, while the maximum daily 8 h average (MDA8) O 3 concentrations became much higher compared to those before the lockdown (from January 1 to 22, 2020). Here, we show that emission reduction is the major driving force for the PM 2.5 change, contributing to a PM 2.5 decrease by 37% to 55% in the four YRD major cities (i.e., Shanghai, Hangzhou, Nanjing, and Hefei), but the MDA8 O 3 increase is driven by both emission reduction (29%–52%) and variation in meteorological conditions (17%– 49%). Among all pollutants, reduction in emissions mainly of primary PM contributes to a PM 2.5 decrease by 28% to 46%, and NOx emission reduction contributes 7% to 10%. Although NOx emission reduction dominates the MDA8 O 3 increase (38%–59%), volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emission reduction lead to a 5% to 9% MDA8 O 3 decrease. Increased O 3 promotes secondary aerosol formation and partially offsets the decrease of PM 2.5 caused by the primary PM emission reductions. The results demonstrate that more coordinated air pollution control strategies are needed in YRD.

Abstract. The Yangtze River Delta (YRD) and the megacity of Shanghai are host to one of the busiest port clusters in the world; the region also suffers from high levels of air pollution. The goal of this study was to estimate the contributions of shipping to regional emissions, air quality, and population exposure and to characterize the importance of the geographic spatiality of shipping lanes and different types of ship-related sources for the baseline year of 2015, which was prior to the implementation of China's Domestic Emission Control Areas (DECAs) in 2016. The WRF-CMAQ model, which combines the Weather Research and Forecasting model (WRF) and the Community Multi-scale Air Quality (CMAQ) model, was used to simulate the influence of coastal and inland-water shipping, port emissions and ship-related cargo transport on air quality and on the population-weighted concentrations (which is a measure of human exposure). Our results showed that the impact of shipping on air quality in the YRD was primarily attributable to shipping emissions within 12 NM (nautical miles) of shore, but emissions coming from the coastal area between 24 and 96 NM still contributed substantially to ship-related PM2.5 concentrations in the YRD. The overall contribution of ships to the PM2.5 concentration in the YRD could reach 4.62 µg m−3 in summer when monsoon winds transport shipping emissions onshore. In Shanghai city, inland-water going ships were major contributors (40 %–80 %) to the shipping impact on urban air quality. Given the proximity of inland-water ships to the urban populations of Shanghai, the emissions of inland-water ships contributed more to population-weighted concentrations. These research results provide scientific evidence to inform policies for controlling future shipping emissions; in particular, in the YRD region, expanding the boundary of 12 NM from shore in China's current DECA policy to around 100 NM from shore would include most of shipping emissions affecting air pollutant exposure, and stricter fuel standards could be considered for the ships on inland rivers and other waterways close to residential regions.

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Abstract. A high-resolution air pollutant emission inventory for the Yangtze River Delta (YRD) region was updated for 2017 using emission factors and chemical speciation based mainly on local measurements in this study. The inventory included 424 non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs) and 43 fine particulate matter (PM2.5) species from 259 specific sources. The total emissions of SO2, NOx, CO, NMVOCs, PM10, PM2.5, and NH3 in the YRD region in 2017 were 1552, 3235, 38 507, 4875, 3770, 1597, and 2467 Gg, respectively. SO2 and CO emissions were mainly from boilers, accounting for 49 % and 73 % of the total. Mobile sources dominated NOx emissions, contributing 57 % of the total. NMVOC emissions, mainly from industrial sources, made up 61 % of the total. Dust sources accounted for 55 % and 28 % of PM10 and PM2.5 emissions, respectively. Agricultural sources accounted for 91 % of NH3 emissions. Major PM2.5 species were OC, Ca, Si, PSO4, and EC, accounting for 9.0 %, 7.0 %, 6.4 %, 4.6 %, and 4.3 % of total PM2.5 emissions, respectively. The main species of NMVOCs were aromatic hydrocarbons, making up 25.3 % of the total. Oxygenated volatile organic compounds (OVOCs) contributed 21.9 % of the total NMVOC emissions. Toluene had the highest comprehensive contribution to ozone (O3) and secondary organic aerosol (SOA) formation potentials, while other NMVOCs included 1,2,4-trimethylbenzene, m,p-xylene, propylene, ethene, o-xylene, and ethylbenzene. Industrial process and solvent-use sources were the main sources of O3 and SOA formation potential, followed by motor vehicles. Among industrial sources, chemical manufacturing, rubber and plastic manufacturing, appliance manufacturing, and textiles made significant contributions. This emission inventory should provide scientific guidance for future control of air pollutants in the YRD region of China.