Rationale: Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) (␣, ␥, and ␦/␤) are nuclear hormone receptors and ligand-activated transcription factors that serve as key determinants of myocardial fatty acid metabolism. Long-term cardiomyocyte-restricted PPAR␦ deficiency in mice leads to depressed myocardial fatty acid oxidation, bioenergetics, and premature death with lipotoxic cardiomyopathy. Objective: To explore the essential role of PPAR␦ in the adult heart. Methods and Results: We investigated the consequences of inducible short-term PPAR␦ knockout in the adult mouse heart. In addition to a substantial transcriptional downregulation of lipid metabolic proteins, short-term PPAR␦ knockout in the adult mouse heart attenuated cardiac expression of both Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase and manganese superoxide dismutase, leading to increased oxidative damage to the heart. Moreover, expression of key mitochondrial biogenesis determinants such as PPAR␥ coactivator-1 were substantially decreased in the short-term PPAR␦ deficient heart, concomitant with a decreased mitochondrial DNA copy number. Rates of palmitate and glucose oxidation were markedly depressed in cardiomyocytes of PPAR␦ knockout hearts. Consequently, PPAR␦ deficiency in the adult heart led to depressed cardiac performance and cardiac hypertrophy. Conclusions: PPAR␦ is an essential regulator of cardiac mitochondrial protection and biogenesis and PPAR␦ activation can be a potential therapeutic target for cardiac disorders. (Circ Res. 2010;106:911-919.)

Abstract-Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor ␤/␦ (PPAR␤/␦) is an essential transcription factor in myocardial metabolism. This study aims to investigate the effects of PPAR␤/␦ activation in the adult heart on mitochondrial biology and oxidative metabolism under normal and pressure-overload conditions. We have investigated the effects of cardiac constitutively active PPAR␤/␦ in adult mice using a tamoxifen-inducible transgenic approach with Cre-LoxP recombination. The expression of PPAR␤/␦ mRNA and protein in cardiomyocytes of adult mice was substantially increased after short-term induction. In these mice, the cardiac expression of key factors involved in mitochondrial biogenesis, such as PPAR␥ coactivator-1, endogenous antioxidants Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase, and catalase, fatty acid, and glucose metabolism, such as carnitine palmitoyltransferase Ib, carnitine palmitoyltransferase II, and glucose transporter 4, were upregulated. Subsequently, myocardial oxidative metabolism was elevated concomitant with an increased mitochondrial DNA copy number and an enhanced cardiac performance. Moreover, activation of PPAR␤/␦ in the adult heart improved cardiac function and resisted progression to pathological development in mechanical stress condition. We conclude that PPAR␤/␦ activation in the adult heart will promote cardiac performance along with transcriptional upregulation of mitochondrial biogenesis and defense, as well as oxidative metabolism at basal and pressure-overload conditions. (Hypertension. 2011;57:223-230.) • Online Data Supplement