of findings for the main comparison. Hypnotherapy versus behavioural treatments or no treatment for smoking cessation Hypnotherapy versus behavioural treatments or no treatment for smoking cessation Patient or population: people who smoke Intervention: hypnotherapy Comparison: behavioural treatments or no treatment Anticipated absolute effects * (95% CI) Outcomes Risk with control Risk with Hypnotherapy Relative effect (95% CI) № of participants (studies) Certainty of the evidence (GRADE) Comments Study population Hypnotherapy versus attention-matched behavioural treatments Smoking cessation at 6+ months follow-up 150 per 1,000 182 per 1,000

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Air pollution is a significant global issue. In 2014, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared air pollution to be the world's largest single environmental health risk, with ambient air pollution causing 3.7 million deaths annually (WHO, 2014). The World Bank has also reported air pollution to be the fourth leading risk factor for premature deaths worldwide, resulting in 1 in 10 total deaths in 2013, at a cost to the global economy of about US$225 billion in lost labour income (World Bank and Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, 2016). In urban areas, particularly in developed countries, road traffic is often the major contributor to local ambient air pollution and is largely responsible for elevated concentrations of nitrogen dioxide (NO 2), among other pollutants. Exceedences of the Ambient Air Quality Directive (2008/50/EC) (AAQD) annual mean limit value for NO 2 , derived from WHO health-based thresholds, are widespread across much of the UK (and Europe). In 2010, when the annual mean limit value for NO 2 was to be achieved (and five years after the UK's own parallel domestic NO 2 objectives should have been met), the UK was in breach of regulations in 40 (93%) of its 43 designated zones and agglomerations. The UK Government Department for the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra), which is responsible for compliance reporting against the AAQD to the European Commission, applied for a Time Extension Notification (TEN) of five years for 24 of its exceeding zones and agglomerations in September 2011, leaving the remaining 16 areas of exceedence in breach of the AAQD, resulting in infraction proceedings launched by the European Commission against the UK government in February 2014. It is the European Commission's legal action against the UK government for its failure to achieve the annual mean limit value for NO 2 by 1st January 2010 st January 2010 as set in the AAQD, and the potential that this poses for the imposition of substantial fines by the European Court of Justice (CJEU) that set the policy context for the paper. Within this context, in the same year that the government applied for the TEN, the UK Localism Act 2011 (Part 2) introduced a legal framework enabling fines imposed on national government by the EU to be passed down to local government. On receipt of the

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