Neonatal application of probiotic bacteria inhibits subsequent allergic sensitization and airway disease in a murine model of asthma by induction of T regulatory cells associated with increased TGF-beta production.

Aspirin gained tremendous popularity during the 1918 Spanish Influenza virus pandemic, 50 years prior to the demonstration of their inhibitory action on prostaglandins. Here, we show that during influenza A virus (IAV) infection, prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) was upregulated, which led to the inhibition of type I interferon (IFN) production and apoptosis in macrophages, thereby causing an increase in virus replication. This inhibitory role of PGE2 was not limited to innate immunity, because both antigen presentation and T cell mediated immunity were also suppressed. Targeted PGE2 suppression via genetic ablation of microsomal prostaglandin E-synthase 1 (mPGES-1) or by the pharmacological inhibition of PGE2 receptors EP2 and EP4 substantially improved survival against lethal IAV infection whereas PGE2 administration reversed this phenotype. These data demonstrate that the mPGES-1-PGE2 pathway is targeted by IAV to evade host type I IFN-dependent antiviral immunity. We propose that specific inhibition of PGE2 signaling might serve as a treatment for IAV.

To subvert host immunity, influenza A virus (IAV) induces early apoptosis in innate immune cells by disrupting mitochondria membrane potential via its polymerase basic protein 1-frame 2 (PB1-F2) accessory protein. Whether immune cells have mechanisms to counteract PB1-F2-mediated apoptosis is currently unknown. Herein, we define that the host mitochondrial protein nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptor (NLR)X1 binds to viral protein PB1-F2, preventing IAV-induced macrophage apoptosis and promoting both macrophage survival and type I IFN signaling. We initially observed that Nlrx1-deficient mice infected with IAV exhibited increased pulmonary viral replication, as well as enhanced inflammatory-associated pulmonary dysfunction and morbidity. Analysis of the lungs of IAV-infected mice revealed markedly enhanced leukocyte recruitment but impaired production of type I IFN in Nlrx1 −/− mice. Impaired type I IFN production and enhanced viral replication was recapitulated in Nlrx1 −/− macrophages and was associated with increased mitochondrial mediated apoptosis. Through gain-and loss-of-function strategies for protein interaction, we identified that NLRX1 directly bound PB1-F2 in the mitochondria of macrophages. Using a recombinant virus lacking PB1-F2, we confirmed that deletion of PB1-F2 abrogated NLRX1-dependent macrophage type I IFN production and apoptosis. Thus, our results demonstrate that NLRX1 acts as a mitochondrial sentinel protecting macrophages from PB1-F2-induced apoptosis and preserving their antiviral function. We further propose that NLRX1 is critical for macrophage immunity against IAV infection by sensing the extent of viral replication and maintaining a protective balance between antiviral immunity and excessive inflammation within the lungs.innate immunity | Nod-like receptor