The capacity of Shigella to spread within the cytosol of infected epithelial cells and to infect adjacent cells is critical for the development of infection foci, which lead to mucosal abscesses. Shigella is a nonmotile microorganism that appears to utilize host cell microrflaments to generate intra-as well as intercellular movements, since this movement was inhibited by cytochalasin D and involvement of F-actin was demonstrated by direct labeling of infected cells with the specific dye N-(7-nitrobenz-2-oxa-1,3-diazol-4-yl)phallacidin.

Penetration and replication of Listeria monocytogenes within intestinal epithelial cells were studied by infecting the human enterocyte-like cell line Caco-2. Entry was due to directed phagocytosis, as suggested by the inhibiting effect of cytochalasin D on bacterial entry and by electron microscopy showing bacteria inside membrane-limiting vacuoles at the early stage of infection. Only bacteria from pathogenic species (L. monocytogenes and Listeria ivanovii) were able to induce their own phagocytosis by Caco-2 cells, as opposed to Listeria seeligeri, Listeria welshimeri, and Listeria innocua. L. monocytogenes multiplied readily within Caco-2 cells, with an apparent generation time of about 90 min. Listeriolysin 0 was found to be a major factor promoting intracellular growth of L. monocytogenes. After being internalized at the same rate as that of its hemolytic revertant strain, a nonhemolytic mutant from L. monocytogenes failed to replicate significantly within Caco-2 cells. Electron microscopic study demonstrated that bacteria from the nonhemolytic mutant remained inside phagosomes during cellular infection, whereas hemolytic bacteria from L. monocytogenes were released free within the cytoplasm. This indicates that disruption of vacuole membranes by listeriolysin 0-producing strains of L. monocytogenes might be a key mechanism allowing bacteria to escape from phagosomes and to multiply unrestricted within cell cytoplasm.

Shigella bacteria invade macrophages and epithe-lial cells and following internalization lyse the phagosome and escape to the cytoplasm. Galectin-3, an abundant protein in macrophages and epithelial cells, belongs to a family of beta-galactoside-binding proteins, the galectins, with many proposed functions in immune response, development, differentiation, cancer and infection. Galectins are synthesized as cytosolic proteins and following non-classical secretion bind extra-cellular beta-galactosides. Here we analysed the localization of galectin-3 following entry of Shigella into the cytosol and detected a striking phenomenon. Very shortly after bacterial invasion, intracellular galectin-3 accumulated in structures in vicinity to internalized bacteria. By using immuno-electron microscopy analysis we identified galectin-3 in membranes localized in the phagosome and in tubules and vesicles that derive from the endocytic pathway. We also demonstrated that the binding of galectin-3 to host N-acetyllactosamine-containing glycans, was required for forming the structures. Accumulation of the structures was a type three secretion system-dependent process. More specifically, existence of structures was strictly dependent upon lysis of the phagocytic vacuole and could be shown also by Gram-positive Listeria and Salmonella sifA mutant. We suggest that galectin-3-containing structures may serve as a potential novel tool to spot vacuole lysis.

Bacteria co-ordinate expression of virulence determinants in response to localised microenvironments in their hosts. Here we show that Shigella flexneri, which causes dysentery, encounters varying oxygen concentrations in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, which govern activity of its type three secretion system (T3SS); the T3SS is essential for cell invasion and virulence 1 . In anaerobic environments (e.g. the GI tract lumen), Shigella expresses extended T3SS needles while reducing Ipa (Invasion plasmid antigen) effector secretion. This is mediated by FNR, a regulator of anaerobic metabolism that represses transcription of spa32 and spa33, virulence genes that the switch in secretion through the T3SS. We demonstrate there is a zone of relative oxygenation adjacent to the GI tract mucosa, caused by diffusing from the capillary network at the tips of villi. This would reverse the anaerobic block of Ipa secretion, allowing T3SS activation at its precise site of action, enhancing invasion and virulence.Shigella virulence depends on its ability to enter epithelial cells by delivering Ipa effectors via its T3SS into the host cell cytoplasm 1 . Secretion through T3SSs is highly regulated.Initially, T3SS needle components are secreted until it reaches a pre-defined length 23 . In inducing conditions, a switch then occurs allowing Ipa secretion through needles, mediating bacterial entry 4 .