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Background and Aim An abnormal immune response to intestinal bacteria has been observed in Crohn's disease (CD). Clostridium difficile infection incidence and severity are increased in CD, but reports on the humoral response have provided conflicting results. We aimed to shed light on the possible role of C. difficile in CD pathogenesis by paying attention to the influence of immunomodulatory treatment on the humoral response. Methods A total of 71 consecutive outpatients with CD, 67 with ulcerative colitis (UC), and 121 healthy controls were analyzed for serum IgA and IgG to C. difficile toxins A and B. Results IgA levels were similar in all study groups. IgG to toxin A was increased similarly in CD and UC (P = 0.02 for both). In contrast, IgG to toxin B was elevated only in CD patients not receiving disease‐modifying anti‐inflammatory bowel disease drugs (DMAID) (n = 16) (P = 0.0001), while the CD medication subgroup (n = 47) had a level similar to healthy controls. The UC results were not influenced by DMAID treatment. Conclusion Our findings add support to the idea of a disturbed interaction between intestinal cells and the microbiota being part of the CD disease mechanism. An abnormal immune response to C. difficile toxin B may be a critical component of this interaction.

The aim of this text is to show the existence of large (3.54 times the average) gaps between consecutive zeros, on the critical line, of some Dirichlet L-functions L(s, χ), with χ being an even primitive Dirichlet character.

In today’s digital society, people encounter a lot of information on a daily basis. This information should be understood by citizens in order for them to be able to properly engage in political issues, something the population of a healthy democracy does. Much of such information involves mathematics and fully comprehending it requires so-called quantitative literacy. All students should learn this as well as critical thinking at school. The article also discusses how abstract mathematics can indirectly be beneficial for democracy.

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