Mental visualization and tools that foster it have recently been acknowledged as significant factors in scientific creativity. Cartography occupies a critical position in the growing array of scientific visualization tools, particularly for geographers, earth scientists and atmospheric scientists. Treating the map as a visualization tool leads to a different perspective on cartography than that generally taken when the map is viewed as a communication device. The goal of cartography and cartographic research shifts from a search for the optimal map to a search for spatial data abstraction methods that prompt pattern identification and lead to insight. A model is proposed for cartographic visualization that stresses the role of maps in data exploration. Emphasis is on the potential for maps to stimulate scientific insight by facilitating the discovery of patterns and relationships in spatial data. Following from this pattern identification model for cartographic visualization some perspectives are offered on the design of cartographic visualization tools to facilitate pattern identification. Attention to visualization quality is considered as a key component in the successful development of such tools. In conclusion, the relationship between visualization tools used to foster scientific insight and those developed for other applications such as urban planning or navigation is considered.

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Commercial aviation has become safe as a result of procedures and technologies that control wellknown hazards. Further safety improvements will require the identification of subtle and changing hazards in the combined realm of airspace, technology, commerce, and human behavior. The preconditions for a disaster may arise from the combined effects of a particular airport approach, air traffic control policies, and aircraft crew training. The potential may be revealed just once, in a near-miss that a highly skilled pilot is able to avefi. Yet, because such discoveries are often related to human error, personnel are reluctant to come forward for fear of blame and punishment. With the Aviation Safety Action Programs (ASAP), the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) is developing a nonpunitive collaborative approach that supplements traditional regulatory actions. An ASAP team is a triad composed of air carrier (corporate), pilot association (union), and FAA (regulatory) personnel who meet to review, discuss, and analyze event reports submitted voluntarily by flight personnel. The team is required to reach "unanimous consensus" on the event report and the corrective actions to be taken. Our analysis suggests they do so through a hierarchy of shared values, a working buffer to exclude distractions, and sideband communications that build trust. ASAP appears to be a highly effective cultural mechanism for identifying novel and subtle hazards, and designing rapid, mutually acceptable corrective actions. AcknowledgementsThis report is an account of independent research sponsored by the Flight Standards Service (AFS) of the Federal Aviation Administration. The opinions are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of other individuals or organizations. e q We thank the event review team participants for allowing us to observe their meetings, and answering our questions about the process. We thank the following people for their comments on drafts of this report:

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