Alternative splicing (AS) is a key regulatory mechanism that contributes to transcriptome and proteome diversity. As very few genome-wide studies analyzing AS in plants are available, we have performed high-throughput sequencing of a normalized cDNA library which resulted in a high coverage transcriptome map of Arabidopsis. We detect~150,000 splice junctions derived mostly from typical plant introns, including an eightfold increase in the number of U12 introns (2069). Around 61% of multiexonic genes are alternatively spliced under normal growth conditions. Moreover, we provide experimental validation of 540 AS transcripts (from 256 genes coding for important regulatory factors) using highresolution RT-PCR and Sanger sequencing. Intron retention (IR) is the most frequent AS event (~40%), but many IRs have relatively low read coverage and are less well-represented in assembled transcripts. Additionally,~51% of Arabidopsis genes produce AS transcripts which do not involve IR. Therefore, the significance of IR in generating transcript diversity was generally overestimated in previous assessments. IR analysis allowed the identification of a large set of cryptic introns inside annotated coding exons. Importantly, a significant fraction of these cryptic introns are spliced out in frame, indicating a role in protein diversity. Furthermore, we show extensive AS coupled to nonsense-mediated decay in AFC2, encoding a highly conserved LAMMER kinase which phosphorylates splicing factors, thus establishing a complex loop in AS regulation. We provide the most comprehensive analysis of AS to date which will serve as a valuable resource for the plant community to study transcriptome complexity and gene regulation. [Supplemental material is available for this article.]Alternative splicing (AS) is a widespread mechanism which increases transcriptome and proteome complexity and controls developmental programs and responses to the environment in higher eukaryotes. The splicing process, removal of introns and ligation of exons, is performed by a large RNA-protein complex, the spliceosome, consisting of five small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs) and about 180 proteins with different functions (Wahl et al. 2009). Assembly of the spliceosome on introns in a precursor messenger RNA (pre-mRNA) is directed by cis elements and trans-acting factors (Black 2003;Stamm et al. 2005). The cis sequences include the splice sites, branchpoint, and polypyrimidine tract which have degenerate consensus sequences in higher eukaryotes. While many splice sites are selected in all transcripts (constitutive splicing), others are used to various levels, resulting in alternative transcripts. Selection of such alternative splice sites is affected by auxiliary cis elements located within exonic and intronic sequences, termed splicing enhancers and silencers. These elements are binding sites for trans-acting splicing factors, for example, hnRNP and SR proteins. These proteins, in addition to their functions in constitutive splicing, play a key role in AS by inhibition or ...

High-throughput sequencing for transcript profiling in plants has revealed that alternative splicing (AS) affects a much higher proportion of the transcriptome than was previously assumed. AS is involved in most plant processes and is particularly prevalent in plants exposed to environmental stress. The identification of mutations in predicted splicing factors and spliceosomal proteins that affect cell fate, the circadian clock, plant defense, and tolerance/sensitivity to abiotic stress all point to a fundamental role of splicing/AS in plant growth, development, and responses to external cues. Splicing factors affect the AS of multiple downstream target genes, thereby transferring signals to alter gene expression via splicing factor/AS networks. The last two to three years have seen an ever-increasing number of examples of functional AS. At a time when the identification of AS in individual genes and at a global level is exploding, this review aims to bring together such examples to illustrate the extent and importance of AS, which are not always obvious from individual publications. It also aims to ensure that plant scientists are aware that AS is likely to occur in the genes that they study and that dynamic changes in AS and its consequences need to be considered routinely.

Alternative splicing (AS) coupled to nonsense-mediated decay (NMD) is a post-transcriptional mechanism for regulating gene expression. We have used a high-resolution AS RT–PCR panel to identify endogenous AS isoforms which increase in abundance when NMD is impaired in the Arabidopsis NMD factor mutants, upf1-5 and upf3-1. Of 270 AS genes (950 transcripts) on the panel, 102 transcripts from 97 genes (32%) were identified as NMD targets. Extrapolating from these data around 13% of intron-containing genes in the Arabidopsis genome are potentially regulated by AS/NMD. This cohort of naturally occurring NMD-sensitive AS transcripts also allowed the analysis of the signals for NMD in plants. We show the importance of AS in introns in 5′ or 3′UTRs in modulating NMD-sensitivity of mRNA transcripts. In particular, we identified upstream open reading frames overlapping the main start codon as a new trigger for NMD in plants and determined that NMD is induced if 3′-UTRs were >350 nt. Unexpectedly, although many intron retention transcripts possess NMD features, they are not sensitive to NMD. Finally, we have shown that AS/NMD regulates the abundance of transcripts of many genes important for plant development and adaptation including transcription factors, RNA processing factors and stress response genes.