Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) increase the risk of developing colorectal cancer. Dietary components that reduce inflammation are associated with lower cancer risk. The long-chain omega-3 fatty acid docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is present in fish oil and has potent anti-inflammatory properties. The objective of this study is to determine whether dietary fish oil enriched with DHA (DFO) could reduce experimentally induced colitis and colon cancer risk in a mouse model. When SMAD3−/− mice are exposed to Helicobacter hepaticus, mild colitis is observed 4 weeks postinfection. Mice were fed isocaloric diets modified to include corn oil, safflower oil, or DFO (doses ranging from 0.75% to 6.00%) as the fatty acid source for 8 weeks. Mice were gavaged with H. hepaticus; DFO feeding was continued; and mice were sacrificed 4 weeks after infection. The colon and cecum were collected for histopathology. Spleens and mesenteric lymph nodes were collected and analyzed for T-cell populations using flow cytometry. Contrary to expectations, DFO induced severe colitis and adenocarcinoma formation. DFO consumption was associated with decreased CD8 + cell frequency and diminished CD69 expression on CD4 + and CD8 + T-cell populations. Mice consuming DFO also exhibited higher FoxP3 + CD25 + CD4 + T regulatory cell frequency, FoxP3 expression, and altered L-selectin expression during infection. We concluded that DFO-fed mice may be less equipped to mount a successful response to H. hepaticus infection, increasing colon cancer risk. These results support the need to establish a tolerable upper limit for DHA intake particularly in the context of chronic inflammatory conditions such as IBD.

DHA is a n-3 LCPUFA in fish oil that generally suppresses T lymphocyte function. However, the effect of fish oil on B cell function remains relatively understudied. Given the important role of B cells in gut immunity and increasing human fish oil supplementation, we sought to determine whether DFO leads to enhanced B cell activation in the SMAD-/- colitis-prone mouse model, similar to that observed with C57BL/6 mice. This study tested the hypothesis that DHA from fish oil is incorporated into the B cell membrane to alter lipid microdomain clustering and enhance B cell function. Purified, splenic B cells from DFO-fed mice displayed increased DHA levels and diminished GM1 microdomain clustering. DFO enhanced LPS-induced B cell secretion of IL-6 and TNF-α and increased CD40 expression ex vivo compared with CON. Despite increased MHCII expression in the unstimulated ex vivo B cells from DFO-fed mice, we observed no difference in ex vivo OVA-FITC uptake in B cells from DFO or CON mice. In vivo, DFO increased lymphoid tissue B cell populations and surface markers of activation compared with CON. Finally, we investigated whether these ex vivo and in vivo observations were consistent with systemic changes. Indeed, DFO-fed mice had significantly higher plasma IL-5, IL-13, and IL-9 (Th2-biasing cytokines) and cecal IgA compared with CON. These results support the hypothesis and an emerging concept that fish oil enhances B cell function in vivo.

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NK cells are a heterogenous population of innate lymphocytes with diverse functional attributes critical for early protection from viral infections. We have previously reported a decrease in influenza-induced NK cell cytotoxicity in 6-mo-old C57BL/6 calorically restricted (CR) mice. In the current study, we extend our findings on the influence of CR on NK cell phenotype and function in the absence of infection. We demonstrate that reduced mature NK cell subsets result in increased frequencies of CD127+ NK cells in CR mice, skewing the function of the total NK cell pool. NK cells from CR mice produced TNF-α and GM-CSF at a higher level, whereas IFN-γ production was impaired following IL-2 plus IL-12 or anti-NK1.1 stimulation. NK cells from CR mice were highly responsive to stimulation with YAC-1 cells such that CD27−CD11b+ NK cells from CR mice produced granzyme B and degranulated at a higher frequency than CD27−CD11b+ NK cells from ad libitum fed mice. CR has been shown to be a potent dietary intervention, yet the mechanisms by which the CR increases life span have yet to be fully understood. To our knowledge, these findings are the first in-depth analysis of the effects of caloric intake on NK cell phenotype and function and provide important implications regarding potential ways in which CR alters NK cell function prior to infection or cancer.

The effect of aging on natural killer cell homeostasis is not well studied in humans or in animal models. We compared natural killer (NK) cells from young and aged mice to investigate age-related defects in NK cell distribution, and development. Our findings indicate aged mice have reduced NK cells in most peripheral tissues, but not in bone marrow. Reduction of NK cells in periphery was attributed to a reduction of the most mature CD11b+ CD27− NK cells. Apoptosis was not found to explain this specific reduction of mature NK cells. Analysis of NK cell development in bone marrow revealed that aged NK cells progress normally through early stages of development, but a smaller percentage of aged NK cells achieved terminal maturation. Less mature NK cells in aged bone marrow correlated with reduced proliferation of immature NK cells. We propose advanced age impairs bone marrow maturation of NK cells, possibly affecting homeostasis of NK cells in peripheral tissues. These alterations in NK cell maturational status have critical consequences for NK cell function in advanced age: reduction of the mature circulating NK cells in peripheral tissues of aged mice affects their overall capacity to patrol and eliminate cancerous and viral infected cells.