Women workers in Export Processing Zones (EPZs) in Sri Lanka are often exposed to harsh working conditions and a range of negative social experiences due to their perceived low social status. Research has demonstrated that they experience both empowerment and disempowerment as a result of formal employment. The authors explore the differences between female Sri Lankan EPZ workers who felt empowered (n = 2196) and those who did not (n = 107), and investigate factors that contribute to empowerment. The analysis reveals a significant difference between the two groups of workers: empowered women had a longer history of employment service, saved significantly more money, and contributed much less to their family than non-empowered women. There were no significant differences in social experiences between the groups. However, the work-related variables used to investigate reported influential factors in empowerment demonstrated that as savings increased so too did the likelihood of empowerment. Conversely, as the proportion of the contribution to the family income increased, the odds of reporting empowerment decreased. The findings suggest that work factors may not be the most important in the establishment of and/or reporting empowerment but rather earnings management and contribution to household appear to be a more significant determining factor. Introduction Export Processing Zones (EPZs) are a relatively new phenomenon in Sri Lanka and employ over 50,000 women, predominantly in textile and garment factories. These industries are critical for the nation's terms of trade and the income earned by the young women who work in EPZs is very important to their own empowerment and that of their families. We found that most women contributed part of their salary to their family and saved part in formal bank accounts. They were doing this as a strategy intended to last for only 3-5 years, due to the harsh working conditions and negative societal attitudes to women in Sri Lanka working in export-oriented manufacturing. It is beyond doubt that women feel disempowered in EPZs globally due to long working hours and harsh working conditions, low pay, and severe managerialism.However, in this article we explore a more personal and experiential reason for feelings of empowerment and disempowerment that hinges on levels of savings and monthly remittances. Our study is quantitative and focused on a large sample size (n = 2303), the largest in the literature reviewed and thus unique. Quantitative analysis of women who work in EPZs on this scale is not apparent in any of the literature that we have sourced since 2004 and our analysis sheds new light on gender and empowerment in developing nations. For example, we found that women who had a longer than average (3-5 years) employment history had an opportunity to save more money. As expected, empowered women reported significantly more savings because they worked significantly longer. This finding is of interest as it sees women as active agents of change, with deliberate strategies devi...

Sri Lankan women who are employed in Export Processing Zones (EPZs) work in a range of factories. A cross-section of female EPZ workers (n = 2304) representing 6 EPZs were surveyed as part of this study, with the majority in the textile and garment industries. Largely qualitative or small-scale research has demonstrated that textile and garment workers are often subject to poor social respect, derogatory comments and exposed to harsh or poor working conditions. Of particular interest was, exploring in greater detail whether there were any quantifiably significant work-related or societal differences between female EPZ workers in textile and garment factories (n = 1878), compared to those employed in ‘other’ factory types (n = 426). Measuring ‘objective’ work conditions, Mann-Whitney U tests demonstrated significantly lower earnings and savings among textile and garment workers compared to those who worked in ‘other’ factories. Pearson’s chi-square test of contingencies revealed that although reports of abuse and harassment were generally low, textile and garment workers were more likely to experience verbal abuse. Regardless of such negativity the majority of women within this study reported high rates of empowerment as a result of their experiences working in EPZs – largely irrespective of factory type. These statistical findings suggests that the different ‘objective’ workplace experiences (and to some extent, ‘subjective’ treatment) of female EPZ workers across textile and garment and ‘other’ factory types, may have little to do with their overall sense of personal achievement or inclusion, feeling empowered as a result of having been engaged in work

The rise of economic liberalism in Sri Lanka in the latter half of the twentieth century has generated a continuous, powerful, and controversial debate about women in the workforce. Local politicians and powerful societal forces have used discourse to display power in the media and wider society. Gender issues were used as a platform to engage in unrelated political agendas and criticize export processing zones (EPZs), female workers, and female sexuality. Our research in Sri Lanka sampled more than 4,000 women over 14 years. The article uses data from two research studies from 2008–2011 (Study 1) and from 2013–2014 (Study 2) in Sri Lanka. The studies are interrelated. Each analyse the levels of empowerment and disempowerment experienced by women, due specifically to the negative discourse they faced on a daily basis – both as part of their life as EPZ workers (study 1) and after returning to their villages (Study 2). Serious pieces of negative discourse stand out as examples of misleading speech and attempt to subjugate women through power. Our interviews with Sri Lankan EPZ workers show that young women are described as Juki girls, a pejorative term used with a negative connotation. Moreover, EPZs are often referred to as whore zones or love zones due to the stigma created by society and pushed by a political agenda in national political discourse, such as: “Our innocent girls are sewing underwear for white women” (Lynch, 2002, p. 82). The questions in both studies were designed to assess the respondents’ experiences of power (or powerlessness) and empowerment. Study 1 shows that nearly all of the women surveyed (95.3 percent) reported feeling empowered as a result of their work in EPZs. The respondents also indicated empowerment across their home as well. However, societal level disempowerment was significant, much of it emanating in the public arena and in societal and political resistance to EPZ workers. Concurrently, results of Study 2 demonstrated lower but significant negative experiences as a result of work in formal manufacturing. Less than 10 percent (7.2 percent) experienced humiliation in public, their community or society while working in the manufacturing industry, and only 12 percent reported experiencing negative societal attitudes upon first returning home from their work in EPZs.

Using a largely qualitative research design, this study originally explored how a small cohort of aged clients and human service workers assessed and measured Quality of Life (QOL) amongst older people. A literature review was undertaken and interviews were conducted with participants from Community Vision Incorporated (CVI) and other key informants from separate human service agencies. The findings suggested that there was a dichotomous relationship between the perceived affects that in-home care and aged care facilities had on the QOL of older people. A number of participants suggested that in-home care and aged care facilities were disempowering and overall, impacted negatively on the Objective QOL (O-QOL) and Subjective QOL (S-QOL) of older people. This paper will outline these complexities and further discuss related themes, issues and new insights into the relationship between an older person's 'place of residence' and other O & S-QOL indicators.

Sri Lankan women employed by export processing zones (EPZs) represent various educational levels. Using a survey sample of 2,304 randomly selected female EPZ workers, this paper quantitatively compared workers with ordinal-level secondary education – O- levels – and below (n = 1,423) – and those with advanced-level secondary education – A-levels – and above (n = 878). Overall, the ‘higher educated’ women reported more positive socio-economic outcomes than their ‘lower educated’ counterparts. Mann-Whitney U tests demonstrated greater earning (saving) capacities among ‘higher educated’ women; with Pearson’ s chi-square test of contingencies revealing that this cohort were also more likely to receive promotions than ‘lower educated’ women. Although reports of abuse (harassment) were generally low among both sub-samples, ‘lower educated’ female EPZ workers were more likely to experience verbal abuse, sexual harassment and public humiliation. Despite such inter-group polarisation, a near consensus of all participants reported feeling greater empowerment as a result of their time in formal employment