Geologists tend to expect that rocks as they appear in outcrop are a very good approximation of the same strata in the subsurface. But this is not the case in mixed siliciclastic-evaporite units, strata that contain both a siliciclastic and an evaporite mineral component. Distinct differences in lithologic and stratigraphic descriptions of ancient siliciclastic-evaporite strata exist between outcrop and core. These differences present challenges in stratigraphic nomenclature, lithologic correlation, age determinations, and interpretations about past depositional environments, diagenetic history, and paleoclimate. An example of siliciclastic-evaporite strata is the middle Permian to early Triassic gypsum-and/or anhydrite-(hereby referred to as gypsum/anhydrite) and halite-bearing red beds throughout the midcontinent of North America and equivalent strata from other Pangean deposits. Here, we use core and field observations of the middle Permian Nippewalla Group in Kansas to show the range of similarities and differences in lithologies and thicknesses of specific lithofacies in outcrop and at various depths. For example, the displacive halite lithology, consisting of red mudstones dominated by randomly oriented halite crystals, is abundant in cores and interpreted as saline mudflat deposits. The outcrop counterpart is less common, friable, massive red mudstones with some gypsum/anhydrite pseudomorphs after displacive halite crystals. We interpret these lithologic differences of this saline mudflat lithofacies as the result of excellent preservation of buried displacive halite and late-stage dissolution of near-surface halite. Additionally, bedded halite and intergranular halite cements in siltstones and sandstones are also vulnerable to late-stage dissolution near the surface, further modifying lithologies and thicknesses. Thickness of the Nippewalla Group in the Amoco Rebecca K. Bounds core of western Kansas is 931 feet (, 284 meters) thick, but it is estimated to be only half as thick in the outcrop belt of south-central Kansas. To estimate amount of rock lost to late-stage dissolution, we conducted dissolution experiments on displacive halite units from cores, which resulted in 60-95% loss of rock thickness and mass due to dissolution of halite. The unconsolidated red sediment resulting from these dissolution experiments compares favorably with much of the fine massive red siliciclastics that make up the greater part of the Nippewalla Group outcrops. We propose that major lithologic differences resulting from near-surface diagenetic processes must be expected in any evaporite-bearing siliciclastic unit. Besides guiding correlation attempts between surface and subsurface, this knowledge is vital for making accurate interpretations of depositional and diagenetic history of siliciclastic-evaporite units.

Willow Hill Elemental Concentration Data 2. Bulk semi-quantitative XRD Data 3. Automated Mineralogy Data from Red Peak Formation 4and evaporites of Pangea. This study will resolve conflicts between previously proposed models for red bed formation and the previously proposed depositional environments of the red beds, carbonate, and gypsum of the Permo-Triassic of Wyoming. It will also contribute to an understanding of the Permian-Triassic environments, climate, and paleogeography. SCIENTIFIC AND SOCIAL IMPORTANCESedimentologists study the deep-time rock record to address important questions about the evolution of life, guide exploration for natural resources, and understand the range of environments on Earth and other rocky planets. This dissertation reconstructs depositional environments using details of sedimentary features, geochemistry, and fossils. The Permian and Triassic Periods have proven particularly important to study as an analog for a warming climate. However, the rocks of the Permo-Triassic has been difficult for geologists to understand because they vary widely from modern analogs. The Earth at the end of the Permian was widely different from modern experience, yet the uniformitarian-approach is still valid. Detailed sedimentological studies, like this one, are required to understand geological processes and their consequences during a global warming event, such as that at the end of the Permian.The Permian-Triassic mass extinctions, extreme environments, and global warming is a Phanerozoic endmember for aridity, heat, and surface water chemistry. Red beds and evaporites are common Permian and Triassic rock types. However, outcrops of red beds and evaporites are difficult to study, and well-preserved cores are rare. This study will elucidate some of the physical, chemical, and biological processes during extremely arid environmental conditions. As modern global atmospheric CO 2 increases, the rate of climate change is expected to increase (Solomon et al., 2007). The rapid and sustained increase in CO 2 and its impact on earth systems is not a no-analog situation in human experience; however, the Permo-Triassic rocks record continental environments that have undergone this type of global climate change. The specific physical processes, geochemical products, and biological interactions with the environment may provide insight into the Earth's future.This study also contextualizes the Goose Egg and Red Peak's highly arid environments within the context of the wider Permian-Triassic ecological system. These rocks are located adjacent to three extreme depositional systems identified as widespread at the time: (1) loess-dominated rocks, (2) acid saline systems, and (3) open marine systems with unusual chemistry. Wyoming's understudied rocks may hold the key to delineating the extent of extreme environments on the supercontinent and help constrain sediment transportation, habitability, and geochemical cycling within these systems.Understanding the relationships between the marine rocks of western Wyoming...

Purpose -Urban design, in conjunction with the older, more established disciplines of architecture and town planning, is increasingly important in shaping the built environment. Urban designers are required to consider a broad array of issues, crime and safety being among them. For various practical and projectrelated reasons, crime and safety issues can be given cursory attention. Design/methodology/approach -The paper is an invited opinion piece and comment based upon the specialist knowledge and expertise of the author working within the field of urban design. Findings -Learning from environmental sustainability and the manner in which such issues are now routinely embedded into urban design processes, the paper argues that a combination of regulation (i.e. legislation, policies and design guidelines) and ongoing professional development for built environment professionals are required to ensure that crime and safety issues are given due consideration. Originality/value -Practical examples will be used to illustrate this argument, including reference to a design guideline operating in New South Wales (Australia) and lessons learned (and challenges experienced) from a mixed-used development project in inner-Sydney. Keywords Planning, Urban design, Crime prevention through environmental design Paper type Viewpoint UrbanisationThe global population continues to swell and our cities are being forced to manage unprecedented urbanisation. This is most prevalent in the developing world where people are escaping the poverty and lack of infrastructure in rural areas for the promise of a better life in the cities. According to the UN-HABITAT's report, State of the World Cities 2010/2011: Bridging the Urban Divide, already half of the world's population live in urban areas, with the less urbanised regions being Asia and Africa, though they will reach a tipping point in 2023 and 2030, respectively.As the pressure continues to grow on our cities, towns and suburbs, the world is becoming increasingly aware of the implications of continued, and at times, unmanageable growth. Traffic congestion, housing shortages, polluted landscapes, unemployment, crime and security are just some of the issues that we must grapple with on a day-to-day basis, both as urbanists (i.e. those that work in professions relating to the urban environment) and urban dwellers.To better respond to the shifting demographic, cultural and urban landscapes new areas of specialisation are emerging from the traditional professions of "architecture" and "town planning", which are often considered too broad. These disciplines have been complemented by various streams of design, engineering, sociology, geography, sustainability and environmental sciences. Buildings, towns, streets and public spaces are still designed, built and maintained, though the process is increasingly complex and requires input from an immense number of specialists.

The late Permian Minnekahta Limestone of the Black Hills of South Dakota is not a typical limestone. Sandwiched stratigraphically between continental redbed siliciclastics, it is distinct in its gray-pink appearance and carbonate mineralogy and is considered a local and regional marker bed. Based on its calcite composition and stromatolites, it has previously been interpreted as a tidal flat deposit, leading to speculation of a regional late Permian marine transgression. Here, we show observations that question the original composition, reexamine and refine the sedimentary and stratigraphic characteristics, and suggest an alternate depositional environment. Petrography and x-ray diffraction indicate that the Minnekahta Limestone is dominated by an interlocking crystal mosaic of calcite and gypsum. We have documented pseudomorphs after bottom-growth gypsum crystals, alternating laminae of mm-scale bottom growth gypsum crystal shapes and mud drapes, as well as mudcracks, raindrop imprints, and stromatolites. No carbonate grains, fossils, or tidal rhythmites were noted. These observations suggest that the carbonate phase is a replacement of gypsum. In addition to the sedimentology and petrography, close stratigraphic association with overlying and underlying continental redbeds indicates that this was likely a shallow saline-lake deposit. Other Permo-Triassic carbonate strata in continental redbed sequences throughout the midcontinent of North America, such as those in the Goose Egg, Chugwater, Nippewalla, and Spearfish strata, may have similar continental origin. This study serves as a lesson that paired petrographic observations and mineral identifications are important data necessary for the best interpretation of depositional environments and diagenetic histories.

Two distinct and newly recognized, formation-scale stratigraphic units, predominantly red-bed sandstones and shales, are found on the surface and in the shallow subsurface of the central Michigan region. Here, we use core, field, and laboratory observations to document these strata, which we propose as one new formation, the Pewamo Formation. The Pewamo Formation consists of eolian quartz sandstones with red coloration due to iron-oxide diagenesis, and interbedded interdune lacustrine siliciclastic mudstones. We also describe for the first time the Haybridge strata, which contains red sandstones, red and gray shales, and coal, and has plant fossils and paleosol features. Macroscopic plant fossils and palynomorphs suggest a Pennsylvanian age for both units. These newly described continental deposits provide data about past environments, life, and climate for the late Carboniferous of Michigan. In addition, this study is an evaluation of Michigan's controversial ''Jurassic red beds'' and ''Ionia sandstone.''