Lanthipeptides are ribosomally synthesized and post-translationally modified peptides (RiPPs) that display a wide variety of biological activities, from antimicrobial to antiallodynic. Lanthipeptides that display antimicrobial activity are called lantibiotics. The post-translational modification reactions of lanthipeptides include dehydration of Ser and Thr residues to dehydroalanine and dehydrobutyrine, a transformation that is carried out in three unique ways in different classes of lanthipeptides. In a cyclization process, Cys residues then attack the dehydrated residues to generate the lanthionine and methyllanthionine thioether cross-linked amino acids from which lanthipeptides derive their name. The resulting polycyclic peptides have constrained conformations that confer their biological activities. After installation of the characteristic thioether cross-links, tailoring enzymes introduce additional post-translational modifications that are unique to each lanthipeptide and that fine-tune their activities and/or stability. This review focuses on studies published over the past decade that have provided much insight into the mechanisms of the enzymes that carry out the post-translational modifications.

Despite intensive research, the cyclodehydratase responsible for azoline biogenesis in thiazole/oxazole-modified microcin (TOMM) natural products remains enigmatic. The collaboration of two proteins, C and D, is required for cyclodehydration. The C protein is homologous to E1 ubiquitin-activating enzymes, while the D protein is within the YcaO superfamily. Recent studies have demonstrated that TOMM YcaOs phosphorylate amide carbonyl oxygens to facilitate azoline formation. Here we report the X-ray crystal structure of an uncharacterized YcaO from Escherichia coli (Ec-YcaO). Ec-YcaO harbors an unprecedented fold and ATP-binding motif. This motif is conserved among TOMM YcaOs and is required for cyclodehydration. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the C protein regulates substrate binding and catalysis and that the proline-rich C-terminus of the D protein is involved in C protein recognition and catalysis. This study identifies the YcaO active site and paves the way for the characterization of the numerous YcaO domains not associated with TOMM biosynthesis.

Oceanic harmful algal blooms of Pseudo-nitzschia diatoms produce the potent mammalian neurotoxin domoic acid (DA). Despite decades of research, the molecular basis for its biosynthesis is not known. By using growth conditions known to induce DA production in Pseudo-nitzschia multiseries, we implemented transcriptome sequencing in order to identify DA biosynthesis genes that colocalize in a genomic four-gene cluster. We biochemically investigated the recombinant DA biosynthetic enzymes and linked their mechanisms to the construction of DA’s diagnostic pyrrolidine skeleton, establishing a model for DA biosynthesis. Knowledge of the genetic basis for toxin production provides an orthogonal approach to bloom monitoring and enables study of environmental factors that drive oceanic DA production.