Plastic pollution is a critical environmental concern and comprises the majority of anthropogenic debris in the ocean, including macro, micro, and likely nanoscale (less than 100nm in at least one dimension) plastic particles. While the toxicity of macroplastics and microplastics is relatively well studied, the toxicity of nanoplastics is largely uncharacterized. Here, fluorescent polystyrene nanoparticles (PS NPs) were used to investigate the potential toxicity of nanoplastics in developing zebrafish (Danio rerio), as well as to characterize the uptake and distribution of the particles within embryos and larvae. Zebrafish embryos at 6h post-fertilization (hpf) were exposed to PS NPs (0.1, 1, or 10ppm) until 120 hpf. Our results demonstrate that PS NPs accumulated in the yolk sac as early as 24 hpf and migrated to the gastrointestinal tract, gallbladder, liver, pancreas, heart, and brain throughout development (48-120 hpf). Accumulation of PS NPs decreased during the depuration phase (120-168 hpf) in all organs, but at a slower rate in the pancreas and gastrointestinal tract. Notably, exposure to PS NPs did not induce significant mortality, deformities, or changes to mitochondrial bioenergetics, but did decrease the heart rate. Lastly, exposure to PS NPs altered larval behavior as evidenced by swimming hypoactivity in exposed larvae. Taken together, these data suggest that at least some nanoplastics can penetrate the chorion of developing zebrafish, accumulate in the tissues, and affect physiology and behavior, potentially affecting organismal fitness in contaminated aquatic ecosystems.

Plastics are ubiquitous anthropogenic contaminants that are a growing concern in aquatic environments. The ecological implications of macroplastics pollution are well documented, but less is known about nanoplastics. The current study investigates the potential adverse effects of nanoplastics, which likely contribute to the ecological burden of plastic pollution. To this end, we examined whether a dietary exposure of adult zebrafish (Danio rerio) to polystyrene nanoparticles (PS NPs) could lead to the transfer of nanoplastics to the offspring, and whether nanoplastics exposure affects zebrafish physiology. Specifically, adult female and male zebrafish (F0 generation) were exposed to PS NPs via diet for one week and bred to produce the F1 generation. Four F1 groups were generated: control (unexposed females and males), maternal (exposed females), paternal (exposed males), and co-parental (exposed males and females). Co-parental PS NP exposure did not significantly affect reproductive success. Assessment of tissues from F0 fish revealed that exposure to PS NPs significantly reduced glutathione reductase activity in brain, muscle, and testes, but did not affect mitochondrial function parameters in heart or gonads. Assessment of F1 embryos and larvae revealed that PS NPs were present in the yolk sac, gastrointestinal tract, liver, and pancreas of the maternally and co-parentally exposed F1 embryos/larvae. Bradycardia was also observed in embryos from maternal and co-parental exposure groups. In addition, the activity of glutathione reductase and the levels of thiols were reduced in F1 embryos/larvae from maternal and/or co-parental exposure groups. Mitochondrial function and locomotor activity were not affected in F1 larvae. This study demonstrates that (i) PS NPs are transferred from mothers to offspring, and (ii) exposure to PS NPs modifies the antioxidant system in adult tissues and F1 larvae. We conclude that PS NPs could bioaccumulate and be passed on to the offspring, but this does not lead to major physiological disturbances.

Organismal metabolic rate, a fundamental metric in biology, demonstrates an allometric scaling relationship with body size. Fractal-like vascular distribution networks of biological systems are proposed to underlie metabolic rate allometric scaling laws from individual organisms to cells, mitochondria, and enzymes. Tissue-specific metabolic scaling is notably absent from this paradigm. In the current study, metabolic scaling relationships of hearts and brains with body size were examined by improving on a high-throughput whole-organ oxygen consumption rate (OCR) analysis method in five biomedically and environmentally relevant teleost model species. Tissue-specific metabolic scaling was compared with organismal routine metabolism (RMO2), which was measured using whole organismal respirometry. Basal heart OCR and organismal RMO2 scaled identically with body mass in a species-specific fashion across all five species tested. However, organismal maximum metabolic rates (MMO2) and pharmacologically-induced maximum cardiac metabolic rates in zebrafish Danio rerio did not show a similar relationship with body mass. Brain metabolic rates did not scale with body size. The identical allometric scaling of heart and organismal metabolic rates with body size suggests that hearts, the power generator of an organism’s vascular distribution network, might be crucial in determining teleost metabolic rate scaling under routine conditions. Furthermore, these findings indicate the possibility of measuring heart OCR utilizing the high-throughput approach presented here as a proxy for organismal metabolic rate—a useful metric in characterizing organismal fitness. In addition to heart and brain OCR, the current approach was also used to measure whole liver OCR, partition cardiac mitochondrial bioenergetic parameters using pharmacological agents, and estimate heart and brain glycolytic rates. This high-throughput whole-organ bioenergetic analysis method has important applications in toxicology, evolutionary physiology, and biomedical sciences, particularly in the context of investigating pathogenesis of mitochondrial diseases.

Several locations in the Elizabeth River, VA, USA are highly contaminated with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), due to the release of creosote mixtures from wood treatment facilities. Interestingly, some populations of Atlantic killifish (Fundulus heteroclitus) inhabiting the Elizabeth River (ER) are resistant to PAH-induced teratogenesis. However, evolutionary resistance to PAHs due to chronic PAH exposure is associated with reduced fitness and increased susceptibility to other environmental stressors in at least one PAH-resistant ER killifish population. More specifically, wild-caught and first generation PAH-resistant juvenile killifish have altered metabolic demands when compared to non-resistant fish. Herein, we investigated this association further by examining a previously under-studied population captured from the creosote-contaminated site Republic Creosoting (Rep). We assessed PAH toxicity and effects on energy metabolism in Rep killifish in comparison with killifish from the reference site Kings Creek (KC). Following exposures to simple and complex PAH mixtures, Rep killifish exhibited several phenotypes associated with PAH resistance including decreased incidences of developmental cardiovascular deformities and recalcitrant cytochrome P450 1A (CYP1A) activity. We evaluated bioenergetics in killifish embryos throughout development and found elevated basal oxygen consumption rates in Rep embryos relative to KC embryos. Furthermore, juvenile F1 Rep fish had significantly lower maximal metabolic rates and aerobic scopes than KC juveniles. These results suggest that populations of killifish that have adapted or evolved to withstand the toxicity associated with PAHs consequently have altered energetic metabolism or demands. Such consequences could result in an enhanced vulnerability to other environmental and anthropogenic stressors in PAH-resistant killifish.

Several xenobiotic agents (e.g. metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, nanoparticles, etc.) commonly involve the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and oxidative stress as part of their toxic mode of action. Among piscine models, the zebrafish is a popular vertebrate model to study toxicity of various xenobiotic agents. Similarly to other vertebrates, zebrafish possess an extensive antioxidant system, including the reduced form of glutathione (GSH), which is an important antioxidant that acts alone or in conjunction with enzymes, such as glutathione peroxidase (GPx). Upon interaction with ROS, GSH is oxidized, resulting in the formation of glutathione disulfide (GSSG). GSSG is recycled by an auxiliary antioxidant enzyme glutathione reductase (GR). This article outlines detailed methods to measure the concentrations of GSH and GSSG, as well as the activities of GPx and GR in zebrafish larvae as robust and economical means to assess oxidative stress. The studies that have assessed these endpoints in zebrafish and alternative methods are also discussed. We conclude that the availability of these robust and economical methods support the use of zebrafish as a model organism in studies evaluating redox biology, as well as the induction of oxidative stress following exposure to toxic agents.