Sodium-Glucose Cotransporter 2 inhibitors (SGLT2i), or gliflozins, are a group of antidiabetic drugs that have shown improvement in renal and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with kidney disease, with and without diabetes. In this review, we will describe the different proposed mechanisms of action of SGLT2i. Gliflozins inhibit renal glucose reabsorption by blocking the SGLT2 cotransporters in the proximal tubules and causing glucosuria. This reduces glycemia and lowers HbA1c by ~1.0%. The accompanying sodium excretion reverts the tubuloglomerular feedback and reduces intraglomerular pressure, which is central to the nephroprotective effects of SGLT2i. The caloric loss reduces weight, increases insulin sensitivity, lipid metabolism, and likely reduces lipotoxicity. Metabolism shifts toward gluconeogenesis and ketogenesis, thought to be protective for the heart and kidneys. Additionally, there is evidence of a reduction in tubular cell glucotoxicity through reduced mitochondrial dysfunction and inflammation. SGLT2i likely reduce kidney hypoxia by reducing tubular energy and oxygen demand. SGLT2i improve blood pressure through a negative sodium and water balance and possibly by inhibiting the sympathetic nervous system. These changes contribute to the improvement of cardiovascular function and are thought to be central in the cardiovascular benefits of SGLT2i. Gliflozins also reduce hepcidin levels, improving erythropoiesis and anemia. Finally, other possible mechanisms include a reduction in inflammatory markers, fibrosis, podocyte injury, and other related mechanisms. SGLT2i have shown significant and highly consistent benefits in renal and cardiovascular protection. The complexity and interconnectedness of the primary and secondary mechanisms of action make them a most interesting and exciting pharmacologic group.

Initiatives to reduce sodium intake are encouraged globally, yet there is concern about compromised iodine intake supplied through salt. The aim of the present study was to determine baseline sodium, potassium, and iodine intake in a sample of workers from our Institution in Mexico City (SALMEX Cohort). Methods. From a cohort of 1009 workers, appropriate 24-h urine and three-day dietary recall was collected in a sample of 727 adult subjects for assessment of urinary sodium, potassium, and iodine concentrations. Median urinary iodine excretion (UIE) was compared across categories of sodium intake of <2, 2–3.6, and ≥3.6 g/day. Results. Average sodium intake was 3.49 ± 1.38 g/day; higher in men than women (4.14 vs. 3.11 g/day, p ≤0.001). Only 10.6% of the population had sodium intake within the recommended range (<2 g/day); 45.4% had high (2–3.6 g/day) and 44% had excessive intake (>3.6 g/day). Average urinary Na/K ratio was 3.15 ± 1.22 (ideal < 1), higher in men (3.42 vs. 3.0, p ≤ 0.001). The multivariate analysis showed that sodium intake was associated with age (p = 0.03), male sex (p < 0.001), caloric intake (p = 0.002), UKE (p < 0.001) and BMI (p < 0.001). Median iodine intake was 286.7 µg/day (IQR 215–370 µg/day). Less than 2% of subjects had iodine intake lower than recommended for adults (95 µg/day); 1.3% of subjects in the recommended range of salt intake had low iodine intake. There is a direct relationship between iodine and sodium urinary excretion (r = 0.57, p < 0.0001). Conclusions. In the studied population, there was an excessive sodium intake and an imbalance between sodium and potassium intake. Only 10.6% of the population had sodium intake within the recommended values, but iodine intake in this group appears to be adequate.

The new American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association 2017 Hypertension Guidelines lower the threshold to define hypertension, thus increasing its prevalence. The impact on populations and health systems is poorly understood. We included data from 990 subjects aged 20 to 64 years from the SALMEX cohort (Salt in Mexico; Mexico City) and determined the prevalence of hypertension and requirement for pharmacological treatment according to both Joint National Committee on the Prevention, Detection, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure 7 and American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association 2017 guidelines. The data obtained were extrapolated to sex- and age-adjusted Mexico City population, and annual costs of medical follow-up were calculated. The new definition increased the prevalence of hypertension among SALMEX cohort from 16.2% to 37.4% (18%–39.3% after adjusting to Mexico City population). The proportion of subjects that require pharmacological and nonpharmacological treatment increased from 17.7% to 19.0% and from 17.7% to 37.4%, respectively (19.4%–21.8% for pharmacological and 19.4%–39.3% for nonpharmacological treatment, after adjusting to Mexico City population). Annual costs of medical follow-up for subjects with hypertension in Mexico City would increase an estimated $59 278 928. The requirement to initiate pharmacological treatment was similar when assessed by Framingham risk score with lipids or with body mass index compared with the Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease score, with correlation κ indexes of 0.981 and 0.972, respectively. On the basis of these results, Framingham body mass index represents an attractive and potentially cost-effective alternative to assess cardiovascular risk. In conclusion, the adoption of the new guidelines in Mexican population has implications not only on its prevalence but also on medical follow-up costs. A pharmacoeconomic model is required to assess the actual financial impact.

Aim Severe hypocalcaemia following parathyroidectomy for secondary or tertiary hyperparathyroidism (SHPT/THPT) is scarcely studied. We aimed to describe and identify risk factors for early and persistent hypocalcaemia after parathyroidectomy. Methods Retrospective pair‐matched cohort study. We assessed 87 dialysis patients with SHPT (n = 73) or THPT (n = 14) paired with 146 subjects with primary hyperparathyroidism (PHPT) who underwent parathyroidectomy and were followed for 12 months. Early severe hypocalcaemia was defined as a free Ca ≤0.8 mmol/L [3.2 mg/dl] or corrected Ca ≤1.87 mmol/L [7.5 mg/dl] within 48 h. After parathyroidectomy and persistent hypocalcaemia, as an elemental Ca intake >3.0 g/day to achieve corrected Ca >2 mmol/L [8.0 mg/dl]. Results Early severe hypocalcaemia occurred in 77% (67/87) versus 6.8% (10/146) of subjects with SHPT/THPT and PHPT, respectively (p < .001). In SHPT/THPT cases, persistent hypocalcaemia occurred in 77% (49/64) and 64% (35/54) after 6 and 12 months of parathyroidectomy, respectively. In PHPT cases, persistent hypocalcaemia occurred in 6.8% (10/146) after 4–12 months of parathyroidectomy. Preoperative serum alkaline phosphatase (ALP) was the only risk factor associated to early severe hypocalcaemia (OR 7.3, 95% C.I. 1.7–10.9, p = .006) and persistent hypocalcaemia (OR 7.1, 95% C.I: 2.1–14.2, p = .011). Subjects with persistently low intact parathormone (iPTH) (<5.3 pmol/L [50 ng/ml]), suggestive of adynamic bone disease) showed higher Ca increases and less oral calcium requirements compared to those who progressively increased iPTH after parathyroidectomy. Conclusion Early and persistent hypocalcaemia after parathyroidectomy in severe HPT were a common event associated directly to preoperative ALP levels. Subjects with persistently low postoperative iPTH normalized serum Ca more frequently after 1 year of follow up.

Background: Home dialysis therapies such as peritoneal dialysis (PD) offer flexibility and improved wellbeing, particularly for older individuals. However, a substantial proportion require assistance with personal care and healthcare related tasks. We hypothesized that patients and families would require less PD assistance as they became more familiar with PD-related tasks. The study objective was to assess whether the nature of, and need for, PD assistance decreased over time. Methods: Using a multicentred, prospective observational study design, patients aged ≥50 years were recruited from those starting PD. Patients underwent formal evaluation using validated components of a Comprehensive Geriatric Assessment at baseline, and were followed monthly and administered a questionnaire about the need for assistance with PD-related tasks. Results: A total of 111 patients (age 69 ± 10 years, 68% male, 56% diabetic) were followed for a total of 609 patient-months. Of those who needed help, 40% had help from a family member and 33% were helped by nurses. Both the quantity and nature of help received by patients remained generally stable throughout follow-up, and did not vary according to age, frailty, functional dependence or cognitive impairment (p=0.93). The proportion of patients needing help varied widely across the 13 different tasks, but appeared relatively stable across time. The paid/unpaid caregiver ratio for the different tasks did not change over time. Conclusions: Older patients initiating PD, in the outpatient setting, have a high need for assistance with PD-related tasks which appears to persist over the initial 6-month period.