Based on a molecular phylogeny, a new phylogenetic taxonomy that is compatible with both the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) and the PhyloCode is proposed for Glassfrogs and their sister taxon, Allophryne ruthveni. The arrangement presented herein emphasizes the recognition of clades having (i) significant statistical support and congruence among phylogenetic estimation methods (i.e., parsimony, maximum likelihood, and Bayesian inference criteria), (ii) congruence among genetic markers, and (iii) morphological and/or behavioral distinctiveness. Also, when previously recognized groups are recovered as monophyletic or nearly monophyletic, we propose taxa that minimize the number of name changes required to make these groups monophyletic, preserving the names and contents of previous classifications (i.e., nomenclatural stability). The evolutionary proximity of Centrolenidae and Allophrynidae is recognized by combining these families into an unraked taxon, Allocentroleniae—a proposal that maintains the traditional names and species contents of Centrolenidae and Allophrynidae. We arrange centrolenid diversity in two subfamilies: Centroleninae and Hyalinobatrachinae. Within Centroleninae, the diagnosis and species content of the genera Centrolene, Cochranella, and Nymphargus are modified; Teratohyla is resurrected and modified, and Chimerella, Espadarana, Rulyrana, Sachatamia, and Vitreorana are proposed as new genera. The other subfamily, Hyalinobatrachinae, contains the new genus Celsiella and a modified Hyalinobatrachium that fully corresponds to the former fleischmanni Group. Additionally, the genus Ikakogi is described. Ikakogi could not be assigned with confidence to either subfamily and it is placed as incertae sedis in Centrolenidae. The data at hand suggest that Ikakogi tayrona is a lineage as old as the subfamilies Hyalinobatrachinae and Centroleninae. The revised taxonomy differs markedly from previous arrangements, which were based on phenetics and few morphological characters. Most of the genera defined herein are confined to distinct biogeographic regions, highlighting the importance of geography in the speciation of Glassfrogs. The principal limitation of this proposal is that it is based on an incomplete sampling of taxa (54% of the recognized Glassfrogs). Although diagnoses are based on phenotypic traits, there are several cases (16% of all species) in which the allocation of species is ambiguous because of morphological homoplasy and the lack of molecular data. Finally, in an attempt to facilitate species identification, comparison, and generic placement, we provide photographs for most (~ 96%) of the recognized centrolenid species.

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Basic information about the taxonomy, biology and distribution of Hyalinobatrachium glassfrogs of the Guiana Shield (GS) is scarce, ambiguous, and in many cases even contradictory. In this review we aim to clarify the current taxonomic status of this group by means of phenotypic (morphology, morphometrics and bioacoustics) and molecular (mitochondrial DNA sequences) comparisons. Eight species have previously been recognized for the GS: H. crurifasciatum, H. eccentricum, H. fleischmanni (initially described as Hylella cappellei in the GS), H. iaspidiense (with the putative synonym H. nouraguense), H. ignioculus, H. mesai, H. mondolfii, and H. taylori. Our data support the resurrection of H . cappellei from its synonymy with H. fleischmanni. Hyalinobatrachium crurifasciatum, H. eccentricum, and H. ignioculus are proposed as junior synonyms of H. cappellei. We show that none of the four paratypes of H. taylori belong to this species and we assign two to H. cappellei and two to H. mondolfii. Additional specimens previously identified as H. taylori are reassigned to H. cappellei, and hence H. taylori is redefined. Hyalinobatrachium nouraguense is confirmed as a junior syn-onym of H. iaspidiense. We also describe two new species of Hyalinobatrachium from French Guiana: Hyalinobatrachium kawense sp. nov. and Hyalinobatrachium tricolor sp. nov. In addition, and in concordance with the new taxonomic rearrangements, we provide diagnostic characters for all species, known distributions and main sources of references for their biology. We also report new distribution records for H. iaspidiense and H. mondolfii, and describe the formerly unknown tadpole of the later. Consequently, we recognize seven species of Hyalinobatrachium for the Guiana Shield: H. cappellei, H. iaspidiense, H. kawense sp. nov., H. mesai, H. mondolfii, H. taylori, and H. tricolor sp. nov. We discuss the suitability of integrative taxonomy as an approach to identify taxonomic uncertainty and consider its significance for conservation purposes. We also address the implications of our results to understand phylogeographic patterns in this area.

The success of a reintroduction program is determined by the ability of individuals to reproduce and thrive. Hence, an understanding of the mating system and breeding strategies of reintroduced species can be critical to the success, evaluation and effective management of reintroduction programs. As one of the most threatened crocodile species in the world, the Orinoco crocodile (Crocodylus intermedius) has been reduced to only a few wild populations in the Llanos of Venezuela and Colombia. One of these populations was founded by reintroduction at Caño Macanillal and La Ramera lagoon within the El Frío Biological Station, Venezuela. Twenty egg clutches of C. intermedius were collected at the El Frío Biological Station for incubation in the lab and release of juveniles after one year. Analyzing 17 polymorphic microsatellite loci from 335 hatchlings we found multiple paternity in C. intermedius, with half of the 20 clutches fathered by two or three males. Sixteen mothers and 14 fathers were inferred by reconstruction of multilocus parental genotypes. Our findings showed skewed paternal contributions to multiple-sired clutches in four of the clutches (40%), leading to an overall unequal contribution of offspring among fathers with six of the 14 inferred males fathering 90% of the total offspring, and three of those six males fathering more than 70% of the total offspring. Our results provide the first evidence of multiple paternity occurring in the Orinoco crocodile and confirm the success of reintroduction efforts of this critically endangered species in the El Frío Biological Station, Venezuela.

We describe a new species of Hyalinobatrachium from Serranía de Perijá, Estado de Zulia, Venezuela. The new species is placed in the Hyalinobatrachium fleischmanni group and can be differentiated from all other species of Hyalinobatrachium by having small enamelled glands on the lower part of the upper lip and on the skin covering the jaw, iris with a horizontal dark band that connects the pupil with the lateral edges of the eye, marked ulnar and tarsal white enamelled folds, extensive webbing between fingers and between toes, white pericardium and an advertisement call formed by a high-pitched single note composed of two parts: a group of modulated pulses increasing in frequency followed by a long and modulated sound at a constant frequency.