This paper estimates rural household-level forest reliance in the western highlands of Guatemala using quantitative methods. Data were generated by the way of an in-depth household income survey, repeated quarterly between November 2005 and November 2006, in 11 villages (n = 149 randomly selected households). The main sources of income proved to be small-scale agriculture (53 % of total household income), wages (19 %) and environmental resources (14 %). The latter came primarily from forests (11 % on average). In the poorest quintile the forest income share was as high as 28 %. All households harvest and consume environmental products. In absolute terms, environmental income in the top quintile was 24 times higher than in the lowest. Timber and poles, seeds, firewood and leaf litter were the most important forest products. Households can be described as 'regular subsistence users': the share of subsistence income is high, with correspondingly weak integration into regional markets. Agricultural systems furthermore use important inputs from surrounding forests, although forests and agricultural uses compete in household specialization strategies. We find the main household determinants of forest income to be household size, education and asset values, as well as closeness to markets and agricultural productivity. Understanding these common but spatially differentiated patterns of environmental reliance may inform policies aimed at improving livelihoods and conserving forests.

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This is the first review on taxonomy, morphology, ecology, conservation and utilisation of Abies guatemalensis, an endangered endemic conifer in Central America. The species became recently split up in seven varieties with a distinct geographic pattern. A number of morphological traits separate the species from the co-occurring A. hickelii and A. religiosa. The species is used for charcoal production, as valuable timber and (more recently) as highly priced greenery. However, utilisation is not sustainable and may lead to regional extinction within few decades. Protection of the species seems to be most efficient if based on community forest management. As a new conservation tool we suggest establishment of Christmas tree and greenery plantations which could generate significant income for the local farmers. The existing knowledge on A. guatemalensis should be used to steer utilisation, to generate livelihood improvements for the local Maya communities, and to optimise regional and national conservation efforts. Conservation of the species is urgent because it occurs in endangered highland forests which provide significant ecosystem services including erosion control and supply of drinking water. Inconsistencies in description of the species and gaps in knowledge are highlighted and future research directions suggested.