The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and mitochondria form contacts that support communication between these two organelles, including synthesis and transfer of lipids, and the exchange of calcium, which regulates ER chaperones, mitochondrial ATP production, and apoptosis. Despite the fundamental roles for ER-mitochondria contacts, little is known about the molecules that regulate them. Here we report the identification of a multifunctional sorting protein, PACS-2, that integrates ER-mitochondria communication, ER homeostasis, and apoptosis. PACS-2 controls the apposition of mitochondria with the ER, as depletion of PACS-2 causes BAP31-dependent mitochondria fragmentation and uncoupling from the ER. PACS-2 also controls formation of ER lipid-synthesizing centers found on mitochondria-associated membranes and ER homeostasis. However, in response to apoptotic inducers, PACS-2 translocates Bid to mitochondria, which initiates a sequence of events including the formation of mitochondrial truncated Bid, the release of cytochrome c, and the activation of caspase-3, thereby causing cell death. Together, our results identify PACS-2 as a novel sorting protein that links the ER-mitochondria axis to ER homeostasis and the control of cell fate, and provide new insights into Bid action.

Summary The Rho family of GTP binding proteins – also commonly referred to as the Rho GTPases – are master regulators of the platelet cytoskeleton and platelet function. These low molecular weight or “small” GTPases act as signaling switches in the spatial and temporal transduction and amplification of signals from platelet cell surface receptors to the intracellular signaling pathways that drive platelet function. The Rho GTPase family members RhoA, Cdc42 and Rac1 have emerged as key regulators in the dynamics of the actin cytoskeleton in platelets and play key roles in platelet aggregation, secretion, spreading and thrombus formation. Rho GTPase regulators, including GEFs and GAPs and downstream effectors, such as the WASPs, formins and PAKs, may also regulate platelet activation and function. In this review, we provide an overview of Rho GTPase signaling in platelet physiology. Studies of Rho GTPases and platelets have had a shared history, as platelets have served as an ideal, non-transformed cellular model to characterize Rho function. Likewise, recent studies of the cell biology of Rho GTPase family members have helped to build an understanding of the molecular regulation of platelet function and will continue to do so through the further characterization of Rho GTPases as well as Rho GAPs, GEFs, RhoGDIs and Rho effectors in actin reorganization and other Rho-driven cellular processes.

Summary TRAIL selectively kills diseased cells in vivo, spurring interest in this death ligand as a potential therapeutic. However, many cancer cells are resistant to TRAIL suggesting the mechanism mediating TRAIL-induced apoptosis is complex. Here we identify PACS-2 as an essential TRAIL effector, required for killing tumor cells in vitro and virally infected hepatocytes in vivo. PACS-2 is phosphorylated at Ser437 in vivo and pharmacologic and genetic studies demonstrate Akt is an in vivo Ser437 kinase. Akt cooperates with 14-3-3 to regulate the homeostatic and apoptotic properties of PACS-2 that mediate TRAIL action. Phosphorylated Ser437 binds 14-3-3 with high affinity, which represses PACS-2 apoptotic activity and is required for PACS-2 to mediate trafficking of membrane cargo. TRAIL triggers dephosphorylation of Ser437, reprogramming PACS-2 to promote apoptosis. Together, these studies identify the phosphorylation state of PACS-2 Ser437 as a molecular switch that integrates cellular homeostasis with TRAIL-induced apoptosis.

Platelet activation and thrombus formation are under the control of signaling systems that integrate cellular homeostasis with cytoskeletal dynamics. Here, we identify a role for the ribosome protein S6 kinase (S6K1) and its upstream regulator mTOR in the control of platelet activation and aggregate formation under shear flow. Platelet engagement of fibrinogen initiated a signaling cascade that triggered the activation of S6K1 and Rac1. Fibrinogen-induced S6K1 activation was abolished by inhibitors of Src kinases, but not Rac1 inhibitors, demonstrating that S6K1 acts upstream of Rac1. S6K1 and Rac1 interacted in a protein complex with the Rac1 GEF TIAM1 and colocalized with actin at the platelet lamellipodial edge, suggesting that S6K1 and Rac1 work together to drive platelet spreading. Pharmacologic inhibitors of mTOR and S6K1 blocked Rac1 activation and prevented platelet spreading on fibrinogen, but had no effect on Src or FAK kinase activation. mTOR inhibitors dramatically reduced collageninduced platelet aggregation and promoted the destabilization of platelet aggregates formed under shear flow conditions. Together, these results reveal novel roles for S6K1 and mTOR in the regulation of Rac1 activity and provide insights into the relationship between the pharmacology of the mTOR system and the molecular mechanisms of platelet activation. (Blood. 2011;118(11):3129-3136) IntroductionPlatelets represent a specialized set of peripheral blood cells that are optimally configured for adhesion, secretion and aggregation at sites of vascular injury. 1,2 The exposure of platelets to extracellular matrix proteins such as collagen or laminin, or endogenous agonists such as ADP or thromboxanes, mediates hemostasis by activating signaling pathways that ultimately result in platelet adhesion and aggregation. 3 On the engagement of the adhesive proteins fibrinogen and fibronectin, platelet tyrosine kinases such as Src, Syk and FAK are recruited to the platelet cytosolic cell surface to initiate signaling pathways to drive platelet cytoskeletal reorganization through the Rho family small GTPase Rac1. [3][4][5] Rac1 regulates actin polymerization at the cell membrane to drive the growth and extension of platelet lamellipodiae that form the basis for platelet spreading. 4 The molecular mechanisms by which tyrosine kinases ultimately activate Rac1 remain ill-defined.The 70 kDa ribosome S6 protein kinase (S6K1) regulates the ribosome S6 protein to integrate processes of protein translation with cell growth and cell proliferation. 6 In cultured cells as well as in vivo, mitogenic signals triggered by nutrients and growth factors initiate a complex sequence of signaling events to activate the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), a serine/threonine kinase which regulates S6K1 phosphorylation and activation. 7 Treatment of cells with rapamycin (Sirolimus) or other inhibitors of mTOR blocks S6K1 Thr389 phosphorylation and inhibits S6K1 activation. 8 The ability of mTOR inhibitors to arrest the growth of transformed tumor cells with...