Previous research suggests that the use of valid symbolic cues is sufficient to elicit voluntary shifts of attention. The present study interpreted this previous research within a broader theoretical context which contends that observers will voluntarily use symbolic cues to orient their attention in space when the temporal costs of using the cues are perceived to be less than the temporal costs of searching without the aid of the cues. In this view, previous research has not addressed the sufficiency of valid symbolic cues, because the temporal cost of using the cues is usually incurred before the target display appears. To address this concern, 70%-valid spatial word cues were presented simultaneously with a search display. In addition, other research suggests that opposing cuedependent and cue-independent spatial biases may operate in these studies and alter standard measures of orienting. After identifying and controlling these opposing spatial biases, the results of two experiments showed that the word cues did not elicit voluntary shifts of attention when the search task was relatively easy but did when the search task was relatively difficult. Moreover, the findings also showed that voluntary use of the word cues changed over the course of the experiment when the task was difficult, presumably because the temporal cost of searching without the cue lessened as the task got easier with practice. Altogether, the present findings suggested that the factors underlying voluntary control are multifaceted and contextual, and that spatial validity alone is not sufficient to elicit voluntary shifts of attention. Keywords Spatial attention . Spatial cuing, Symbolic attention control . Voluntary attention controlSpatial symbols are often used to elicit voluntary shifts of attention in the laboratory, though these symbols may also elicit involuntary (or automated) shifts of attention (Friesen & Kingstone, 1998;Friesen, Ristic, & Kingstone, 2004;Gibson & Bryant, 2005;Ho & Spence, 2006;Hommel, Pratt, Colzato, & Godijn, 2001;Jonides, 1981;Leblanc & Jolicoeur, 2010;Pratt, Radulescu, Guo, & Hommel, 2010;Ristic, Friesen, & Kingstone, 2002;Ristic & Kingstone, 2006Tipples, 2002Tipples, , 2008. For the past 30 years, the primary tool used to study attentional shifts in response to such symbolic cues has been the spatial cuing paradigm (Posner, 1980;Posner, Snyder, & Davidson, 1980). In this paradigm, observers are shown visual displays and are required to detect, discriminate, or identify some target stimulus presented in their periphery while keeping their eyes fixated on a central location. To aid in their search for the target, a symbolic cue is often shown at fixation, which correctly identifies the location of the target on some trials (i.e., valid trials) but not on others (i.e., invalid trials). In most variations of the spatial cuing paradigm, there is only one target present in each display, accompanied by visually similar nontarget distractors. Under these conditions, observers can choose to use the cue to l...

Working memory (WM) is the ability to temporarily store and retrieve a limited amount of information during complex cognitive activities, especially in the face of distraction. The dual-component model describes WM as including active maintenance in primary memory (PM) and cuedependent search and retrieval from secondary memory (SM). Previously, researchers have found that WM training (WMT) fails to enhance SM capacity, a component that mediates the relationship between WM and fluid reasoning (gF). Thus, a double-blinded, placebo-controlled, randomized trial was conducted to elucidate whether retrieval from SM could be targeted using a two-component WMT regimen versus two control conditions: adaptive one-component WMT targeting solely PM capacity and non-adaptive one-component WMT. Participants were 174 adolescents, aged 10 to 13 years, who were assessed before, after, and 6 months following training. Retrieval from SM was measured using delayed free recall tasks, far transfer to gF was assessed with matrix reasoning and verbal inference tests, and far transfer to academic performance was assessed with reading and math tests. It was predicted that solely two-component WMT would enhance retrieval from SM and result in far transfer. ANCOVAs with pre-test scores as the covariate indicated that two-component participants increased total errors over controls. There were no significant differences between the groups on recall latency, total correct, or gF measures. The non-adaptive one-component group significantly improved on reading, although a drop in the other two groups drove the effect. Additional research is needed to elucidate whether theoretically motivated WMT can positively impact higher-level cognition through SM retrieval mechanisms. Keywords Working memory . Working memory training . Secondary memoryWorking memory (WM) is a multifaceted cognitive ability that allows for the temporary storage and retrieval of a limited amount of goal-relevant information during complex cognitive activities, especially in the face of distraction (Kane and Engle 2002;Unsworth and Engle 2007a). As a construct, WM has taken a core role in modern theories of cognition because it strongly relates to our ability to solve novel complex problems and adapt to new situations in daily life (i.e., fluid reasoning (gF)) (Carpenter et al. 1990;Cattell 1943;de Abreu et al. 2010;Engle et al. 1999;Kane et al. 2005). Furthermore, WM capacity is predictive of a variety of higher-order abilities including performance on verbal and mathematical aptitude tests in children (Cowan et al. 2005;Gathercole and Pickering 2000) and adults (Cowan et al. 2005;Daneman and Carpenter 1980;Turner and Engle 1989). Working Memory Training BackgroundGiven the crucial role WM plays in everyday functioning, there has been increased interest in whether it can be enhanced by computerized WM training (WMT). Often such training paradigms include participants practicing on simple span, complex span, or n-back tasks that adapt in difficulty and therefore push...

Here we propose a rational analysis account of voluntary symbolic attention control-the Least Costs Hypothesis (LCH)-that construes voluntary control as a decision between intentional cue use and unguided search. Consistent with the LCH, the present study showed that this decision is sensitive to variations in cue processing efficiency. In Experiment 1, observers demonstrated a robust preference for using "easy-to-process" arrow cues but not "hard-to-process" spatial word cues to satisfy an easy visual search goal; Experiment 2 showed that this preference persisted even when the temporal costs of cue processing were neutralized. Experiment 3 showed that observers reported this cue type preference outside the context of a speeded task, and Experiment 4 showed empirical measures of this bias to be relatively stable over the course of the task. Together with previous evidence suggesting that observers' decision between intentional cue use and unguided search is also influenced by variations in unguided search efficiency, these findings suggest that voluntary symbolic attention control is mediated by ongoing metacognitive evaluations of demand that are sensitive to perceived variations in the time, effort, and opportunity costs associated with each course of action. Thus, voluntary symbolic attention control is far more complex than previously held. (PsycINFO Database Record

The use of online crowdsourcing services like Amazon's Mechanical Turk (AMT) as a method of collecting behavioral data online has become increasingly popular in recent years. A growing body of contemporary research has empirically validated the use of AMT as a tool in psychological research by replicating a wide range of well-established effects that have been previously reported in controlled laboratory studies. However, the potential for AMT to be used to conduct spatial cuing experiments has yet to be investigated in depth. Spatial cuing tasks are typically very basic in terms of their stimulus complexity and experimental testing procedures, thus making them ideal for remote testing online that requires minimal task instruction. Studies employing the spatial cuing paradigm are typically aimed at unveiling novel facets of the symbolic control of attention, which occurs whenever observers orient their attention through space in accordance with the meaning of a spatial cue. Ultimately, the present study empirically validated the use of AMT to study the symbolic control of attention by successfully replicating four hallmark effects reported throughout the visual attention literature: the left/right advantage, cue type effect, cued axis effect, and cued endpoint effect. Various recommendations for future endeavors using AMT as a means of remotely collecting behavioral data online are also provided. In sum, the present study provides a crucial first step toward establishing a novel tool for conducting psychological research that can be used to expedite not only our own scientific contributions, but also those of our colleagues.

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