In response to new theoretical conceptualizations (Raven, 1992, 1993), an instrument was developed to measure 11 bases of power, the original 6 French and Raven (1959; Raven, 1965) bases of power, with 3 of these further differentiated: reward (personal, impersonal), coercion (personal. impersonal), legitimate (position, reciprocity, equity, dependence), expert, referent, and information. In Study 1, 317 American student respondents rated the likelihood that each of these power bases contributed to a supervisor successfully influencing a subordinate in a series of hypothetical situations. The internal consistency of the items which made up the 11 power bases proved adequate. Factor analysis found 7 factors and 2 categories of bases: harsh and soft. In Study 2, which used 101 Israeli health workers, the earlier findings were generally supported. In addition, job satisfaction was found to be positively related to the attribution of soft bases to the supervisor.

An integrated threat theory composed of four variables was used to predict attitudes toward immigrant groups in Spain and Israel. The four threats are symbolic threats based on value differences between groups; realistic threats to the power, resources, and well-being of the in-group; anxiety concerning social interaction with out-group members; and feelings of threat arising from negative stereotypes of the out-group. All four threats were significant predictors of attitudes toward one or more of the immigrant groups. It was predicted, and found, that intergroup anxiety and negative stereotypes were more powerful and consistent predictors of prejudicial attitudes toward immigrants than were realistic threats or symbolic threats. The implications of the theory for the causes and reduction of prejudice were discussed.

The purpose of this study was to validate the Impact of Event Scale (IES) with a large sample of male subjects who had been exposed to the trauma of combat. Three groups of subjects were compared: (a) subjects who had participated in combat and had been identified as suffering from combat stress reaction; (b) control subjects who had participated in the same battles and were matched on relevant sociodemographic characteristics but had not shown symptoms of combat stress reaction; and (c) combat-ready subjects who were similar to the other groups but had not actively participated in battle. The basic scale structure was replicated. The IES was shown to be sensitive to differences between and within groups. Four basic patterns of intrusion and avoidance were identified. Discussion was focused on the theoretical issues associated with these patterns and on the effects of different types of trauma, and the need for clear criteria for diagnosis and treatment was indicated.

Two models positing direct versus moderating effects of hardiness were examined in relation to long term positive and negative changes following exposure to traumatic stress. Participating in the study were 164 Israeli POWs and a matched group of 184 veterans of the 1973 Yom Kippur War. Participants completed a battery of questionnaires that included the Personal Views Survey (hardiness); the Trait, Attitude, and Behavior Change questionnaire; and questions related to their captivity/war experiences. Findings were consistent with a model that posits moderating effects of hardiness on both long term negative and positive changes. The discussion addresses the possible role of hardiness in relation to negative and positive outcomes of traumatic events.

Children's coping behaviors in the sealed room (a shelter against chemical and biological weapons) during scud missile attacks in the Persian Gulf war were examined in relation to postwar stress reactions. Three weeks after the war, 5th, 7th, and 10th graders (N = 492) completed questionnaires assessing coping behaviors and emotional responses in the sealed room, as well as current stress reactions and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Despite an underlying feeling of tension, the dominant emotional stance in the sealed room was one of detached optimism. Common forms of coping involved information seeking, checking, and wishful thinking. Emotion-focused coping such as avoidance and distraction strategies was associated with less postwar stress reactions than persistence at direct problem-focused actions once the minimal actions available had been undertaken. Fifth graders were found to use less emotion-focused and more problem-focused coping strategies than were the 7th and 10th graders.