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Background: Mycotoxins are metabolites produced by phytopathogenic and spoilage fungi in animal feed as a result of poor storage. The mycotoxins can also originate in the field and are excreted in milk when dairy animals consume such feeds, posing a public health risk concern. Methods: The aim of this study was to conduct a risk assessment in the informal sub-value chains of rural and peri-urban dairy systems in Nakuru County, by determining the prevalence and quantity levels of mycotoxins in animal feeds and milk. A total of 74 animal feed samples and 120 milk samples were simultaneously collected from individual cows and actors in the informal dairy value chain. Feed samples were analyzed for Aflatoxin B 1 (AFB 1) and Deoxynivalenol (DON) while milk samples were analyzed for Aflatoxin M 1 (AFM 1) using commercial Enzyme Linked Immune Sorbent Assay (ELISA) method. Results: Aflatoxin B 1 contamination levels in 56 % (41/74) of the animal feeds exceeded the European Union (EU) limits of 5 μg/kg ranging between 0 and 147.86 μg/kg. Deoxynivalenol (DON) was identified in 63 % (27/43) of all the animal feeds ranging between 0 and 179.89 μg/kg. In the peri-urban dairy system, 48.5 % (33/68) of the milk samples were contaminated with the AFM 1 concentration above the EU regulation of 0.05 μg/L ranging between 0.017 and 0.083 μg/L. All milk samples from the rural dairy system had AFM 1 contamination levels below the EU limits of 0.05 μg/L ranging between 0 and 0.041 μg/L. Linear regression model showed significant association of abiotic factors; pH, water activity and moisture content of animal feed with AFB 1 and DON contamination of the animal feeds. Conclusions: The results obtained from this study indicate that the peri-urban dairy farms, where intensive management predominate face the challenge of quality feeds, and one contributing factor is the on-farm production and handling of animal feeds.

Background: Antibiotic residues are drug substances found in food from plants or animals initially exposed to antibiotics. In animal husbandry antibiotics have widely been used for the treatment of animal diseases. These residues have the ability to expose the public to serious health hazards. In Kenya drug residues have not only been related to lack of withdrawal periods but also to intentional addition to extend milk's shelf life. Results: The aim of this study was to investigate the occurrence of 13 veterinary drugs of tetracyclines and sulphonamides along the dairy sub value chain. The study was carried out in Nakuru County which is the leading milk producer in the country. A total of 229 samples were analysed from rural and 80 samples from peri-urban. These were collected from different nodes of the value chain; the farm, milk transporters and at the bulking centers between January 2014 and November 2015. Screening of samples was done by Charm II Blue -Yellow-test while confirmation was done by HPLC-UV for sulfachloropyradizine (SCL), sulfadiazine (SDZ), sulfadimidine (SMTZ), sulfaquinoxaline (SQ), sulfamerazine (SMR), sulfathiazole (STZ), sulfamethoxazole (SMX), sulfadoxin (SDOX), sulfadimethoxin (SDM), oxytetracycline (OTC), doxycycline hyclate (DC), chlortetracycline hydrochloride (CTC) and tetracycline hydrochloride (TC). In the rural 72 out of 229 (31.4%) samples were positive after screening while none of the samples confirmed the presence of tetracyclines after analysis with HPLC-UV. Sulphonamides confirmed after analysis with HPLC-UV were all above the EU MRL limits. In the peri urban 28.8% (23/80) of the samples were positive for antibiotic residues. Tetracyclines were not detected in confirmation while 60% of the positive samples were positive for sulphonamides out of which 71% were above the regulatory limits. Highest percentage of antibiotics was detected in rural farms (46.7%) and at peri urban bulking centers (50%). Conclusion: The study concluded that antibiotic residues along the dairy value chain are majorly from the farm due to lack of withdrawal periods followed by intentional addition along the value chain. Value chain actors should also be trained on ways of avoiding antibiotic residues from entering the dairy value chain to protect the public from health effects related to antibiotic residues.

Objective To assess, within communities experiencing Ebola virus outbreaks, the risks associated with the disposal of human waste and to generate recommendations for mitigating such risks. Methods A team with expertise in the Hazard Analysis of Critical Control Points framework identified waste products from the care of individuals with Ebola virus disease and constructed, tested and confirmed flow diagrams showing the creation of such products. After listing potential hazards associated with each step in each flow diagram, the team conducted a hazard analysis, determined critical control points and made recommendations to mitigate the transmission risks at each control point. Findings The collection, transportation, cleaning and shared use of blood-soiled fomites and the shared use of latrines contaminated with blood or bloodied faeces appeared to be associated with particularly high levels of risk of Ebola virus transmission. More moderate levels of risk were associated with the collection and transportation of material contaminated with bodily fluids other than blood, shared use of latrines soiled with such fluids, the cleaning and shared use of fomites soiled with such fluids, and the contamination of the environment during the collection and transportation of blood-contaminated waste. Conclusion The risk of the waste-related transmission of Ebola virus could be reduced by the use of full personal protective equipment, appropriate hand hygiene and an appropriate disinfectant after careful cleaning. Use of the Hazard Analysis of Critical Control Points framework could facilitate rapid responses to outbreaks of emerging infectious disease.

On-farm hygienic practices are important in assuring quality and safety of milk for consumers and for reducing losses at production and at post-harvest. This study investigated the relationship between milking practices, mastitis as well as milk somatic cell counts (SCC) and the effects of high SCC on milk production and post-harvest losses (PHL) in smallholder dairy (n = 64) and pastoral camel (n = 15) herds in Kenya. The collected data included milking practices, mastitis test on udder quarters (n = 1236) and collection of milk samples for laboratory analyses: SCC, detection of Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus species. Production losses were computed as a proportion of cows and herds with SCC (>200,000 cells/mL) and PHL as quantity of milk exceeding 4 × 105 cells/mL. Practices associated with production herds included hands, udder washing and drying, and milk let down stimulation with calves suckling or manually (p < 0.001). Udder drying was only applied in peri-urban herds (100%). Herd level prevalence of mastitis was lower in smallholder than in pastoral herds (60.7% vs 93.3%). Mastitis positive samples had higher prevalence of S.aureus than of Streptococcus species in both smallholder (57.9% vs 23.7%) and pastoral (41.6% vs 36.5%) herds. Moreover, SCC was significantly affected by presence of mastitis and S.aureus (p < 0.001). Milk PHL from high SCC was higher in smallholder rural herds (27%) compared to peri-urban (7%) and in pastoral peri-urban (81%) compared to rangelands (76%). Milking practices may have contributed to maintain mastitis pathogens in herds. This has led to substantial pre and postharvest milk losses in smallholder and pastoral herds. Therefore teat dipping, dry cow period and herd level mastitis treatment may complement current practices for lower SCC and milk PHL.