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Communication between automated vehicles (AVs) and vulnerable road users (VRUs) is highly relevant in coordinating traffic maneuvers and therefore ensuring road safety. Especially in shared spaces such as parking areas, communication is highly important. As automated driving changes the driver's role, communication between different traffic participants will also change. External human-machine interfaces (eHMIs) may enhance safety and effective communication between VRUs and AVs by providing relevant information to other traffic participants if informal communication is insufficient. Hence, a variety of information (e.g., about AVs' driving mode or future maneuvers) is recommended to be communicated to VRUs. Therefore, we investigated the effects of three different light signals, presented by a light bar placed on the test vehicle's roof, as a form of an eHMI: automation mode, starting mode and crossing mode. Moreover, two different driving conditions (i.e., a manual and a simulated automated driving condition) were implemented to investigate the effects between these conditions. Either the driver was visible in the manual condition or the vehicle appeared driverless as a seat suit covered the driver in the simulated automated condition (Wizard-of-Oz design). A total of N = 173 random pedestrians passing by were interviewed and behavioral data were collected from over 1500 pedestrians. Results indicate that participants felt significantly safer during the interaction with the vehicle when a driver was visible. Although VRUs evaluated the general approach of applying light signals as eHMIs for AVs as useful, they assessed the presented light signals as only partially trustworthy and rather unintuitive. Moreover, many participants were unsure of whether the light signals were directed towards them, thus the directedness of light signals should be considered when implementing a light-based eHMI in AVs. Further, moving light signals attracted more attention (i.e., increased pedestrians' head movements towards the vehicle) than a steady or no light signal did. Interestingly, no difference existed between the investigated steady light signal and the baseline condition (i.e., no light signal) regarding head movements towards the vehicle. The results underline the importance of implementing an appropriate eHMI design in AVs.

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The phenomenon of the privacy paradox states that people are concerned about their data, but do not behave accordingly by avoiding disclosure of personal data, for instance, when using social media. Since findings about the influence of privacy concerns on privacy-related behavior are controversial, the present study investigates whether social norms or individual privacy concerns provide a better explanation of disclosure behavior. Therefore, a social media app dummy was developed and the social norm manipulated by altering the amount and the sensitivity of information provided in a fictitious app user profile. Regarding social norm factors, the results of the online experiment (N = 42) revealed that only the sensitivity of the data in the dummy profile demonstrated a medium effect on the amount of personal data given by the participants. Considering individual factors, the less concerned individuals were about their privacy, the higher were the amount and the degree of sensitivity of the personal information participants disclosed. In addition, participants differentiated between sensitive or non-sensitive information when disclosing their data. They disclosed sensitive information significantly less often, regardless of the dummy profile they saw. Altogether, the study results do not support the privacy paradox and demonstrate implications for media education.