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Objectives Research has documented that frequent breakfast consumption is associated with better cognition. However, the relationship between breakfast type and cognitive functioning is lesser known. In this study, we examined both breakfast type and consumption frequency in relation to IQ and academic achievement in a sample of 12-year-old Chinese schoolchildren. Methods Participants included 835 12-year-old children from the China Jintan Cohort Study. Breakfast habits, food types, and intake frequency were assessed through self-administered nutrition questionnaires. The types of foods measured included fruits/vegetables, grain/rice, meat/egg, dairy products, and soy products. IQ was measured with the Chinese version of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children. Standardized academic achievement was collected through school reports. Multivariate general linear modeling was implemented for data analysis. Results More frequent breakfast consumption of grain/rice and meat/egg (6–7 days per week) was significantly associated with higher verbal, performance, and full scale IQs, by 3.562, 3.687, and 4.559 points, respectively (all P < 0.05), compared with rare grain/rice intake (0–2 days per week). Regular meat/egg breakfast consumption appeared to facilitate academic achievement (6–7 vs. 0–2 d/w, mean difference = 0.232, P = 0.043). Interestingly, frequent consumption of fruit/vegetables and dairy products did not affect cognitive functioning. Furthermore, an intermediate frequency (3–5 d/w) showed better verbal IQ and academic achievement. A dose-response relationship showed that even after adjustment for up to nine covariates, those who ate breakfast 6–7 days per week tended to have a higher verbal IQ score of 6.760 (P = 0.017) and a higher average academic achievement score of 0.831 (P < 0.001), than those who rarely ate breakfast (0–2 d/w). Conclusions Our study shows that frequent consumption of grain/rice and meat/egg for breakfast may have positive associations with cognitive functioning in adolescents. Nevertheless, inference cannot be drawn from this cross-sectional analysis. Future studies should assess the long-term effects of breakfast type on cognitive abilities. Funding Sources National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences/National Institutes of Health (R01-ES-01,8858, K02-ES-01,9878, and K01-ES015877).

Objectives Research has shown that regular breakfast consumption is associated with better cognitive functioning in children. However, most studies are cross-sectional, and measure either breakfast consumption or cognitive function at a single time point. In this 6-year longitudinal follow-up, we analyzed two phases of data collection to assess the effects of regular breakfast consumption at ages 6 and 12 on IQ and academic achievement. Methods This longitudinal study is part of the China Jintan Cohort Study. While 1269 children participated in the study at age 6 and 835 children at age 12, 511 children had complete data in both phases of the study. Breakfast habits were assessed through parental questionnaires at age 6, and self-administered questionnaires at age 12. IQ tests at both ages 6 and 12 were conducted with the Chinese version of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children. Multivariate mixed models were utilized to conduct repeated data analysis. Results During the 6-year follow-up, 484 (94.7%) of 511 participants reported having breakfast ≥ 4 days per week (“always or often”), while only 27 (5.3%) children had breakfast ≤ 3 days per week (“sometimes or less”). After controlling for up to nine covariates, the longitudinal repeated analysis using multivariate mixed model showed that compared to less regular breakfast intake, regular breakfast consumption is associated with 5.537 points increased verbal and 4.349 points increased full IQ score (all P < 0.05). Further analysis utilizing the multivariate generalized linear model showed that children who regularly ate breakfast in either phase 1 or phase 2 were more likely to have higher verbal IQ scores (all P < 0.05) in contrast to their counterparts who did not regularly consume breakfast in either phase. Effects of all selected covariates were adjusted in this multivariate model. Conclusions In this 6-year longitudinal follow-up of children who consistently eat breakfast at ages 6 and 12, we show that regular breakfast habits are associated with increasing IQ, particularly verbal IQ. Performance IQ was not significant. Further analysis is necessary to assess whether these effects translate into school performance and scholarly achievement. Funding Sources National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences/National Institutes of Health (R01-ES-018858 K02-ES-019878 and K01-ES015877).