It is known that an appropriately developed foundational number sense (FONS), or the ability to operate flexibly with number and quantity, is a powerful predictor of young children's later mathematical achievement. However, until now not only has FONS been definitionally elusive but instruments for identifying opportunities for children to acquire its various components have been missing from the classroom observation tools available. In this paper, drawing on a constant comparison analysis of appropriate literature, we outline the development of an eight dimensional FONS framework. We then show, by applying this framework to three culturally diverse European grade one lessons, one English, one Hungarian and one Swedish, that it is both straightforwardly operationalised and amenable to cross cultural analyses of classroom practice. Some implications are discussed.

INTRODUCTIONOver the last fifteen years since the publication of Clements' (1999) well-known paper, various scholars, particularly in the United states, have been encouraging teachers to attend to the development of young learners' conceptual subitising (See, for example, Clements & Sarama, 2009;Conderman et al., 2014); where conceptual subitising is the ability to recognise quickly and without counting relatively large numerosities by partitioning these large groups into smaller groups that can be individually subitised (Clements & Sarama, 2007;Geary, 2011). Various claims, which we discuss below, have been made with respect to the efficacy of conceptual subitising-focused instruction. In a related vein, our own recent work has focused on a conceptualisation of foundational number sense (FoNS), which we describe as those number-related competences expected of a typical first grade student that require instruction (Back et al., 2014;Andrews & Sayers, 2014a). FoNS is characterised by eight components, which we describe below. The purpose of this paper, drawing on excerpts from grade one lessons taught by a case study teacher in each of Hungary and Sweden, is to examine the extent to which conceptual subitising-focused activities have the propensity to facilitate students' acquisition of the various FoNS components and, in so doing, examine the warrant for their claimed efficacy. WHAT IS SUBITISING?Subitising refers to being instantly and automatically able to recognise small numerosities without having to count (Clements, 1999;Jung et al., 2013;Moeller et al., 2009;Clements & Sarama, 2009). Children as young as three are typically able to subitise numerosities up to three (Fuson, 1988, Moeller et al., 2009), while most adults are able instantly to recognise without counting the numerosity represented by the dots on the face of a die (Jung et al. 2013). This process, innate to all humans, is typically known as perceptual subitising (Gelman & Tucker, 1975) and forms an element of the preverbal number sense we describe below. In short, perceptual subitising is recognizing a numerosity without using other mathematical processes (Clement, 1999). Conceptual subitisingHowever, a second form of subitising, conceptual subitising (Clements, 1999), which is not unrelated to FoNS, has been shown to have considerable implications for teaching and learning. Conceptual subitising relates to how an individual identifies "a whole quantity as the result of recognizing smaller quantities... that make up the whole" (Conderman et al., 2014, p.29). More generally, it can be summarised as the systematic management of perceptually subitised numerosities to facilitate the management of larger numerosities (Obersteiner et al., 2013). For example, when a child is confronted by two dice, one showing three and another showing four, each is perceptually subitised before any sense of seven can emerge.Subitising can be construed as having a synonymity with the spatial structuring of numbers (Battista et al., 1998). In this case, the ability to ...

In this paper we compare how three teachers, one from each of Finland, Flanders and Hungary, introduce linear equations to grade 8 students. Five successive lessons were videotaped and analysed qualitatively to determine how teachers, each of whom was defined against local criteria as effective, addressed various literature-derived equations-related problems. The analyses showed all four sequences passing through four phases that we have called definition, activation, exposition and consolidation. However, within each phase were similarities and differences. For example, all three constructed their exposition around algebraic equations and, in so doing, addressed concerns relating to students" procedural perspectives on the equals sign. All three teachers invoked the balance as an embodiment for teaching solution strategies to algebraic equations, confident that the failure of intuitive strategies necessitated a didactical intervention.Major differences lay in the extent to which the balance was sustained and teachers" variable use of realistic word problems.

In this paper, we examine the national curricula for primary mathematics for each of the four constituent nations of the United Kingdom (England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales) for the estimation-related opportunities they offer children. Framed against four conceptually and procedurally different forms of estimation (computational, measurement, quantity and number line), the analyses indicate that computational estimation and measurement estimation were addressed in all four curricula, albeit from a skillsacquisition perspective, with only the Scottish offering any meaningful justification for their inclusion. The process of rounding, absent in the Northern Ireland curriculum, was presented as an explicit learning objective in the English, Scottish and Welsh curricula, although it was only the Scottish that made explicit the connections between rounding and computational estimation. In all curricula, both quantity estimation and number line estimation were effectively absent, as was any explicit acknowledgement that learning to estimate, irrespective of its form, has a developmental role in the learning of other mathematical topics.

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