Most eukaryotic organisms are arthropods. Yet, their diversity in rich terrestrial ecosystems is still unknown. Here we produce tangible estimates of the total species richness of arthropods in a tropical rainforest. Using a comprehensive range of structured protocols, we sampled the phylogenetic breadth of arthropod taxa from the soil to the forest canopy in the San Lorenzo forest, Panama. We collected 6144 arthropod species from 0.48 hectare and extrapolated total species richness to larger areas on the basis of competing models. The whole 6000-hectare forest reserve most likely sustains 25,000 arthropod species. Notably, just 1 hectare of rainforest yields >60% of the arthropod biodiversity held in the wider landscape. Models based on plant diversity fitted the accumulated species richness of both herbivore and nonherbivore taxa exceptionally well. This lends credence to global estimates of arthropod biodiversity developed from plant models.M ost eukaryote species are terrestrial arthropods (1), and most terrestrial arthropods occur in tropical rainforests (2). However, considerably greater sampling effort is required in tropical arthropod surveys to yield realistic estimates of global species richness (3-7). A basic hindrance to estimating global biodiversity lies in a lack of empirical data that establish local biodiversity, which can be scaled up to achieve a global estimate.Although many studies reported species richness for selected groups of well-studied insect taxa, no satisfactory estimate of total arthropod species richness exists for a single tropical rainforest location to date.The unstructured collection and small-scale survey of tropical arthropods cannot yield convincing estimates of total species richness at a specific forest (7-9). Most studies either target few arthropod orders or trophic guilds, or use a limited array of sampling methods, or ignore the diverse upper canopy regions of tropical forests (10-15). Moreover, sampling protocols have rarely been structured in such a way that, with increased sampling, incomplete data on local diversity (7) can be extrapolated to estimate total species richness across multiple spatial scales (16). Where such structured estimates are made, it is invariably for insect herbivores on their host plants (5). However, species accumulation rates may differ markedly for nonherbivore guilds, which include more than half of all described arthropod species (1, 17). As the degree of host specificity (effective specialization) of other guilds can be much lower than that of insect herbivores, or may be driven by different factors (18,19), global estimates based on herbivores alone are questionable. Consequently, extensive cross-taxon surveys with structured protocols at reference sites may be the only effective approach toward estimating total arthropod species richness in tropical forests (3).To provide a comprehensive estimate of total arthropod species richness in a tropical rainforest, we established a collaboration involving 102 researchers with expertise encom...

Quantifying the spatio-temporal distribution of arthropods in tropical rainforests represents a first step towards scrutinizing the global distribution of biodiversity on Earth. To date most studies have focused on narrow taxonomic groups or lack a design that allows partitioning of the components of diversity. Here, we consider an exceptionally large dataset (113,952 individuals representing 5,858 species), obtained from the San Lorenzo forest in Panama, where the phylogenetic breadth of arthropod taxa was surveyed using 14 protocols targeting the soil, litter, understory, lower and upper canopy habitats, replicated across seasons in 2003 and 2004. This dataset is used to explore the relative influence of horizontal, vertical and seasonal drivers of arthropod distribution in this forest. We considered arthropod abundance, observed and estimated species richness, additive decomposition of species richness, multiplicative partitioning of species diversity, variation in species composition, species turnover and guild structure as components of diversity. At the scale of our study (2km of distance, 40m in height and 400 days), the effects related to the vertical and seasonal dimensions were most important. Most adult arthropods were collected from the soil/litter or the upper canopy and species richness was highest in the canopy. We compared the distribution of arthropods and trees within our study system. Effects related to the seasonal dimension were stronger for arthropods than for trees. We conclude that: (1) models of beta diversity developed for tropical trees are unlikely to be applicable to tropical arthropods; (2) it is imperative that estimates of global biodiversity derived from mass collecting of arthropods in tropical rainforests embrace the strong vertical and seasonal partitioning observed here; and (3) given the high species turnover observed between seasons, global climate change may have severe consequences for rainforest arthropods.

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Water-soluble chlorophyll (chlorophyllin) was used in a phototoxic reaction against a number of fish ectoparasites such as Ichtyobodo, Dactylogyrus, Trichodina, and Argulus. Chlorophyllin is applied to the water at concentrations of several micrograms per milliliter for a predefined incubation time, and afterwards, the parasites are exposed to simulated solar radiation. Application in the dark caused only little damage to the parasites; likewise, light exposure without the addition of the photosensitizer was ineffective. In Ichthyobodo, 2 μg/mL proved sufficient with subsequent simulated solar radiation to almost quantitatively kill the parasites, while in Dactylogyrus, a concentration of about 6 μg/mL was necessary. The LD50 value for this parasite was 1.02 μg/mL. Trichodina could be almost completely eliminated at 2 μg/mL. Only in the parasitic crustacean Argulus, no killing could be achieved by a photodynamic reaction using chlorophyllin. Chlorophyllin is non-toxic, biodegradable, and can be produced at low cost. Therefore, we propose that chlorophyllin (or other photodynamic substances) are a possible effective countermeasure against several ectoparasites in ponds and aquaculture since chemical remedies are either forbidden and/or ineffective.