In this paper, we present an extensive study of leakage current mechanisms in diodes to model the dark current of various pixel architectures for active pixel CMOS image sensors. Dedicated test structures made in 0.35-m CMOS have been investigated to determine the various contributions to the leakage current. Three pixel variants with different photo diodes-n + /pwell, n + /nwell/psubstrate and p + /nwell/p-substrate-are described. We found that the main part of the total dark current is coming from the depletion of the photodiode edge at the surface. Furthermore, the source of the reset transistor contributes seriously to the total leakage current of a pixel. From the investigation of reverse current-voltage (-) characteristics, temperature dependencies of leakage current, and device simulations we found that for a wide depletion, such as n-well/p-well, thermal Shockley-Read-Hall generation is the main leakage mechanism, while for a junction with higher dope concentrations, such as n + /p-well or p + /n-well, tunneling and impact ionization are the dominant mechanisms. Index Terms-Image sensors, leakage currents, modeling. I. INTRODUCTION D ARK current is an important parameter to characterize the performance of an image sensor. Lowering the dark current will improve the dynamic range due to a reduction of the shot noise of the dark current. Furthermore, dark current reduction is correlated with a decrease of the fixed pattern noise and a reduction of the amount of white pixels defects in dark. Therefore, the reduction of dark current has been an important subject in the history of solid-state imagers. The main part of the work that has been reported by our department about this subject is related to dark current reduction in CCDs [1]-[4]. Nowadays, we use this knowledge to improve the technology and pixel architecture of image sensors made in Philips' 0.35-m CMOS imaging process. To optimize the performance of an active CMOS image pixel, its architecture and photo diode structure have to be optimized [5]-[7].

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Dielectric elastomer generators can be used as continuously controllable damping devices, by using e.g. a design with two single circular devices, clamped on the upside and downside of a rigid pipe and mechanically mounted in series with a piston inside the rigid pipe. In case of a mechanical excitation of the piston through the vibrating surface, one of the generators is stretched, while the other contracts and vice versa respectively. By using an appropriate concept for charging and discharging, the controllable damper can then be used for vibration isolation. These concepts are evaluated by simulation results with the two generator concept.