Summary Monitoring neuronal electrical activity using fluorescent protein-based voltage sensors has been limited by small response magnitudes and slow kinetics of existing probes. Here we report the development of a novel fluorescent protein voltage sensor, named ArcLight, and derivative probes that exhibit large changes in fluorescence intensity in response to voltage changes. ArcLight consists of the voltage-sensing domain of Ciona intestinalis voltage-sensitive phosphatase and super ecliptic pHluorin that carries the point mutation A227D. The fluorescence intensity of ArcLight A242 decreases 35% in response to +100mV depolarization when measured in HEK 293 cells, which is more than five times larger than the signals from previously reported fluorescent protein voltage sensors. We show that the combination of signal size and response speed of these new probes, for the first time, allows the reliable detection of single action potentials and excitatory potentials in individual neurons and dendrites.

Although many psychopharmacological factors contribute to nicotine addiction, midbrain dopaminergic systems have received much attention because of their roles in reinforcement and associative learning. It is generally thought that the mesocorticolimbic dopaminergic system is important for the acquisition of behaviors that are reinforced by the salient drives of the environment or by the inappropriate stimuli of addictive drugs. Nicotine, as obtained from tobacco, can activate nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) and excite midbrain neurons of the mesocorticolimbic system. Using midbrain slices from rats, wild-type mice, and genetically engineered mice, we have found differences in the nAChR currents from the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and the substantia nigra compacta (SNc). Nicotinic AChRs containing the alpha7 subunit (alpha7* nAChRs) have a low expression density. Electrophysiological analysis of nAChR currents, autoradiography of [125I]-alpha-bungarotoxin binding, and in situ hybridization revealed that alpha7* nAChRs are more highly expressed in the VTA than the SNc. In contrast, beta2* nAChRs are move evenly distributed at a higher density in both the VTA and SNc. At the concentration of nicotine obtained by tobacco smokers, the slow components of current (mainly mediated by beta2* nAChRs) become essentially desensitized. However, the minority alpha7* component of the current in the VTA/SNc is not significantly desensitized by nicotine in the range < or =100 nm. These results suggest that nicotine, as obtained from tobacco, can have multiple effects on the midbrain areas by differentially influencing dopamine neurons of the VTA and SNc and differentially desensitizing alpha7* and non-alpha7 nAChRs.

SUMMARY Though much is known about the cellular and molecular components of the circadian clock, output pathways that couple clock cells to overt behaviors have not been identified. We conducted a screen for circadian-relevant neurons in the Drosophila brain, and report here that cells of the pars intercerebralis (PI), a functional homologue of the mammalian hypothalamus, comprise an important component of the circadian output pathway for rest:activity rhythms. GRASP analysis demonstrates that PI cells are connected to the clock through a polysynaptic circuit extending from pacemaker cells to PI neurons. Molecular profiling of relevant PI cells identified the corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) homologue, DH44, as a circadian output molecule that is specifically expressed by PI neurons and required for normal rest:activity rhythms. Notably, selective activation or ablation of just 6 DH44+ PI cells causes arrhythmicity. These findings delineate a circuit through which clock cells can modulate locomotor rhythms.

Type I vestibular hair cells have large Kϩ currents that, like neuronal M currents, activate negative to resting potential and are modulatable. In rodents, these currents are acquired postnatally. In perforated-patch recordings from rat utricular hair cells, immature hair cells [younger than postnatal day 7 (P7)] had a steady-state K ϩ conductance ( g Ϫ30 ) with a half-activation voltage (V 1/2 ) of Ϫ30 mV. The size and activation range did not change in maturing type II cells, but, by P16, type I cells had added a K conductance that was on average fourfold larger and activated much more negatively. This conductance may comprise two components: g Ϫ60 (V 1/2 of Ϫ60 mV) and g Ϫ80 (V 1/2 of Ϫ80 mV). g Ϫ80 washed out during ruptured patch recordings and was blocked by a protein kinase inhibitor.M currents can include contributions from KCNQ and ether-a-go-go-related (erg) channels. KCNQ and erg channel blockers both affected the K ϩ currents of type I cells, with KCNQ blockers being more potent at younger than P7 and erg blockers more potent at older than P16. Single-cell reverse transcription-PCR and immunocytochemistry showed expression of KCNQ and erg subunits. We propose that KCNQ channels contribute to g Ϫ30 and g Ϫ60 and erg subunits contribute to g Ϫ80 .Type I hair cells are contacted by calyceal afferent endings. Recordings from dissociated calyces and afferent endings revealed large K ϩ conductances, including a KCNQ conductance. Calyx endings were strongly labeled by KCNQ4 and erg1 antisera. Thus, both hair cells and calyx endings have large M-like K ϩ conductances with the potential to control the gain of transmission.

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