In this article, I reflect upon access in the context of qualitative research, which I define as the process by which a researcher and the sites and/or individuals he or she studies relate to each other, through which the research in question is enabled. Access is a dynamic and multidirectional process, which depends on the researcher’s ability to access and to develop a ‘multiple vision’, and on the researcher’s and the research’s accessibility. Access influences the research process and results, and is shaped by power dynamics. Awareness of the complexity of access will help qualitative researchers to make more conscious and deliberate decisions, for example on which vantage points to include or exclude, or on how to protect participants and themselves. I illustrate my points of reflection with the help of vignettes from my research on the organizational dynamics behind the Greenpeace campaign against Norwegian whaling. I discuss implications for practice, and argue that perceiving of qualitative research as craftwork can help researchers to sustain complex notions of access.
Psychodynamic approaches to the study of organizations note the importance of organizational defense mechanisms, that is, processes and practices that protect the organization from painful realizations. The overuse of defense mechanisms may lead to the organization becoming detached from reality, dysfunctional, unable to learn, and resistant to change. This article develops the concept of therapeutic organizational double bind as a method of intervention to enable "working through" in organizations "stuck" in a specific type of defense mechanism, namely, a pathogenic organizational double bind. The case of the Greenpeace campaign against whaling in Norway serves as an example. This campaign was dysfunctional, yet Greenpeace, being caught in a pathogenic organizational double bind, was unable to change its behavior patterns for quite a long time. A therapeutic organizational double bind enabled Greenpeace to partially work through and remedy this. The article discusses implications for practice and advocates a systemic approach to organizational analysis. Keywordsdouble bind, therapeutic double bind, defense, resistance to change, paradoxical intervention, working through Psychodynamic approaches to the study of organizations form a long-standing research tradition and have produced a substantial body of literature (
ZusammenfassungUm die in der bestehenden Literatur beschriebenen Effekte von Emotionen in der sozialen Sphäre in Luhmanns Theorie autopoietischer sozialer Systeme integrieren zu können, ist es notwendig zu zeigen, wie Emotionen - laut Luhmann psychische Phänomene - im Bereich des Sozialen relevant werden können, auch wenn nicht über sie kommuniziert wird. Der vorliegende Aufsatz nimmt Bezug auf Weinbachs Person/Habitus-Konstrukt und schlägt vor, dass Emotionen via die Adresse von »Personen« kommuniziert und/oder via die Adresse von »Habitus« wahrgenommen werden können, wobei sie in beiden Fällen soziale Relevanz erlangen. Emotionen dienen der Absicherung der Autopoiesis organischer, psychischer und sozialer Systeme. Sie stützen die Fortschreibung viabler sozialer Strukturen und regen die Veränderung solcher sozialer Strukturen an, die nicht mehr viabel erscheinen. Daher können sie als Reflexionsressourcen nicht nur psychischer, sondern auch sozialer Systeme gesehen werden. Diese Konzeptualisierung von Emotionen lenkt unsere Aufmerksamkeit auf die Bedeutung von Körpern für das Soziale. Sie legt nahe, dass die Rolle der Emotionen zu idiosynkratisch ist, um Emotionen einem anderen Begriff wie dem der symbolisch generalisierten Kommunikationsmedien zu subsumieren. Sie eröffnet weiterhin zusätzliche Möglichkeiten der Integration der psychologischen und psychotherapeutischen Literatur in die Luhmannsche Theorie.
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