Mitochondrial morphology and function are coupled in healthy cells, during pathological conditions and (adaptation to) endogenous and exogenous stress. In this sense mitochondrial shape can range from small globular compartments to complex filamentous networks, even within the same cell. Understanding how mitochondrial morphological changes (i.e. “mitochondrial dynamics”) are linked to cellular (patho) physiology is currently the subject of intense study and requires detailed quantitative information. During the last decade, various computational approaches have been developed for automated 2-dimensional (2D) analysis of mitochondrial morphology and number in microscopy images. Although these strategies are well suited for analysis of adhering cells with a flat morphology they are not applicable for thicker cells, which require a three-dimensional (3D) image acquisition and analysis procedure. Here we developed and validated an automated image analysis algorithm allowing simultaneous 3D quantification of mitochondrial morphology and network properties in human endothelial cells (HUVECs). Cells expressing a mitochondria-targeted green fluorescence protein (mitoGFP) were visualized by 3D confocal microscopy and mitochondrial morphology was quantified using both the established 2D method and the new 3D strategy. We demonstrate that both analyses can be used to characterize and discriminate between various mitochondrial morphologies and network properties. However, the results from 2D and 3D analysis were not equivalent when filamentous mitochondria in normal HUVECs were compared with circular/spherical mitochondria in metabolically stressed HUVECs treated with rotenone (ROT). 2D quantification suggested that metabolic stress induced mitochondrial fragmentation and loss of biomass. In contrast, 3D analysis revealed that the mitochondrial network structure was dissolved without affecting the amount and size of the organelles. Thus, our results demonstrate that 3D imaging and quantification are crucial for proper understanding of mitochondrial shape and topology in non-flat cells. In summary, we here present an integrative method for unbiased 3D quantification of mitochondrial shape and network properties in mammalian cells.

Mitochondrial bioenergetics and reactive oxygen species (ROS) often play important roles in cellular stress mechanisms. In this study we investigated how these factors are involved in the stress response triggered by resazurin (Alamar Blue) in cultured cancer cells. Resazurin is a redox reactive compound widely used as reporter agent in assays of cell biology (e.g. cell viability and metabolic activity) due to its colorimetric and fluorimetric properties. In order to investigate resazurin-induced stress mechanisms we employed cells affording different metabolic and regulatory phenotypes. In HL-60 and Jurkat leukemia cells resazurin caused mitochondrial disintegration, respiratory dysfunction, reduced proliferation, and cell death. These effects were preceded by a burst of ROS, especially in HL-60 cells which also were more sensitive and contained autophagic vesicles. Studies in Rho 0 cells (devoid of mitochondrial DNA) indicated that the stress response does not depend on the rates of mitochondrial respiration. The anti-proliferative effect of resazurin was confirmed in native acute myelogenous leukemia (AML) blasts. In conclusion, the data suggest that resazurin triggers cellular ROS production and thereby initiates a stress response leading to mitochondrial dysfunction, reduced proliferation, autophagy and cell degradation. The ability of cells to tolerate this type of stress may be important in toxicity and chemoresistance.

Running title: Regulation and quantification of mitochondrial morphology and content. Word count: 15,454 (total)Characters: 107,091 (including spaces); 92,067 (excluding spaces) Keywords: mitochondrial biogenesis, mitochondrial dynamics, mitochondrial degradation, living cells, TMRM, microscopy, segmentation, image analysis.Page 2 of 37 ABSTRACTMitochondria play a key role in signal transduction, redox homeostasis and cell survival, which extends far beyond their classical functioning in ATP production and energy metabolism. In living cells, mitochondrial content ("mitochondrial mass") depends on the cell-controlled balance between mitochondrial biogenesis and degradation. These processes are intricately linked to changes in net mitochondrial morphology and spatiotemporal positioning ("mitochondrial dynamics"), which are governed by mitochondrial fusion, fission and motility. It is becoming increasingly clear that mitochondrial mass and dynamics, as well as its ultrastructure and volume, are mechanistically linked to mitochondrial function and the cell. This means that proper quantification of mitochondrial morphology and content is of prime importance in understanding mitochondrial and cellular physiology in health and disease. This review first presents how cellular mitochondrial content is regulated at the level of mitochondrial biogenesis, degradation and dynamics. Next we discuss how mitochondrial dynamics and content can be analyzed with a special emphasis on quantitative live-cell microscopy strategies.

Changes in mitochondrial amount and shape are intimately linked to maintenance of cell homeostasis via adaptation of vital functions. Here, we developed a new live-cell reporter strategy to simultaneously monitor mitochondrial biogenesis and morphology. This was achieved by making a genetic reporter construct where a master regulator of mitochondrial biogenesis, nuclear respiratory factor 1 (NRF-1), controls expression of mitochondria targeted green fluorescent protein (mitoGFP). HeLa cells with the reporter construct demonstrated inducible expression of mitoGFP upon activation of AMP-dependent protein kinase (AMPK) with AICAR. We established stable reporter cells where the mitoGFP reporter activity corresponded with mitochondrial biogenesis both in magnitude and kinetics, as confirmed by biochemical markers and confocal microscopy. Quantitative 3D image analysis confirmed accordant increase in mitochondrial biomass, in addition to filament/network promoting and protecting effects on mitochondrial morphology, after treatment with AICAR. The level of mitoGFP reversed upon removal of AICAR, in parallel with decrease in mtDNA. In summary, we here present a new GFP-based genetic reporter strategy to study mitochondrial regulation and dynamics in living cells. This combinatorial reporter concept can readily be transferred to other cell models and contexts to address specific physiological mechanisms.

Word count: 4587 2 ABSTRACTThe hypolipidemic effect of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) activators has been explained by increasing mitochondrial fatty acid oxidation, as observed in livers of rats treated with the pan-PPAR activator tetradecylthioacetic acid (TTA). PPAR-activation does, however, not fully explain the metabolic adaptations observed in hepatocytes after treatment with TTA. We therefore characterized the mitochondrial effects, and linked this to signalling by the metabolic sensor, the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR). In hepatocytes isolated from TTA-treated rats, the changes in cellular content and morphology were consistent with hypertrophy. This was associated with induction of multiple mitochondrial biomarkers, including mitochondrial DNA, citrate synthase and mRNAs of mitochondrial proteins.Transcription analysis further confirmed activation of PPARα-associated genes, in addition to genes related to mitochondrial biogenesis and function. Analysis of mitochondrial respiration revealed that the capacity of both electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation were increased. These effects coincided with activation of the stress related factor, ERK1/2, and mTOR. The protein level and phosphorylation of the downstream mTOR targets eIF4G and 4E-BP1 were induced. In summary, TTA increases hepatocyte respiration by inducing hypertrophy and mitochondrial biogenesis in rat, via adaptive regulation of PPARs as well as mTOR.