The impact of climate change and anthropogenic deforestation on biodiversity is of growing concern worldwide. Disentangling how past anthropogenic and natural factors contributed to current biome distribution is thus a crucial issue to understand their complex interactions on wider time scales and to improve predictions and conservation strategies. This is particularly important in biodiversity hotspots, such as Madagascar, dominated by large open habitats whose origins are increasingly debated. Although a dominant narrative argues that Madagascar was originally entirely covered by woodlands, which were destroyed by humans, a number of recent studies have suggested that past climatic fluctuations played a major role in shaping current biome distributions well before humans arrived. Here, we address the question of the origin of open habitats in the Daraina region in northern Madagascar, using a multiproxy approach combining population genetics modeling and remote-sensing analyses. We show that (i) contrary to most regions of Madagascar, the forest cover in Daraina remained remarkably stable over the past 60 y, and (ii) the golden-crowned sifaka (Propithecus tattersalli), a forest-dwelling lemur, underwent a strong population contraction before the arrival of the first humans, hence excluding an anthropogenic cause. Prehuman Holocene droughts may have led to a significant increase of grasslands and a reduction in the species' habitat. This contradicts the prevailing narrative that land cover changes are necessarily anthropogenic in Madagascar but does not preclude the later role played by humans in other regions in which recent lemur bottlenecks have been observed. habitat loss | primate | population bottleneck | coalescent

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Individuals can increase their conspicuousness to conspecifics while minimizing their probability of detection by predators by choosing the time and location of their display. Conspicuousness arises from the contrast between the light reflected by the colour patches, and the light refl ected by the visual background in ambient light used for displays. Conspicuousness also depends on the discrimination abilities of both conspecifics and predators. We investigated whether different light environments are present in temperate woodlands, and whether male Blue Tits use this variability to optimize intraspecific conspicuousness while reducing the probability of detection by predators. We measured reflectance of plumage and visual backgrounds, irradiance of available light environments during the breeding period. We used measures of photoreceptor sensitivity of the Blue Tit Parus caeruleus and of a bird approaching that of its main predator the European sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus. We found different light environments in space and time (during the day and throughout the year) that birds could exploit and select for sexual signalling. The blue crown colour appears to be more conspicuous in early/late light environments but during the day it appears to be least conspicuous in woodland shade for both conspecifics and predators. Male Blue Tits, by displaying more intensively at dawn during the breeding period, would optimize intraspecific communication without minimizing detectability by predators. Inversely, by choosing to sing mainly in woodland shade during the day, male Blue Tits reduce the probability of visual detection by predators but also their visibility to conspecifics.