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This cross-sectional study drew on verbal protocol data to analyze the purported problemsolving nature of formulation processes. More precisely, our aim was to explore the allocation of composing time to problem-solving formulation processes in relation to 2 independent variables: (a) the language of composition (i.e., native language [L1] vs. second and foreign language [L2] writing); and (b) the writer's L2 proficiency (via 3 groups at different levels of proficiency). The results showed that the participants devoted twice as much time to dealing with formulation problems in the L2 than in the L1 and that the amount of time allocated to solving problems in the L2 did not depend on proficiency. Proficiency exhibited an apparent influence on the type of formulation problems the writers posed themselves: With increased proficiency, there was an increase, although not a linear one, in the time devoted to improving the expression of meaning or to discovering a better match between intention and expression, or both, and a decrease in the time devoted to compensating for the lack of linguistic resources. We discuss these findings in the light of process-oriented writing research and suggest implications for theory and research.

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This article reports an empirical study in which we explored the role played by two forms of feedback—error correction and model texts—on child English as a foreign language learners’ reported noticing and written output. The study was carried out with 11- and 12-year-old children placed in proficiency-matched pairs who engaged in a three-stage collaborative writing task involving (a) spontaneous noticing of linguistic problems while composing, (b) comparison of their texts with the feedback provided, and (c) rewriting of their original output. Results indicate that although the children noticed and later incorporated mainly lexical features into their output, gains in the linguistic acceptability and comprehensibility of their revised texts showed an advantage for error correction over models. Learners in the error correction condition reported more noticing of grammar at the comparison stage, which later emerged in their revisions. The potential effects of both feedback strategies on children’s reported noticing and output production are discussed, and conclusions are drawn for the role of feedback in children’s classroom second language acquisition.

This cross-sectional study used verbal protocol analysis to compare the temporal distribution of formulation processes of Spanish EFL writers composing L1 and L2 argumentative texts. We studied three groups at different levels of L2 proficiency. Results showed the same total formulation time regardless of whether participants wrote in L1 or L2. L2 proficiency, however, affected times. Higherproficiency participants devoted less time to formulation, concentrated formulation in the central stages of composing, and increased the interaction between formulation and other subprocesses. Fluent formulation was twice as common as problem-solving formulation when writing in L2 and five times as common in L1; these ratios appeared to be invariant across proficiency. Theoretical and methodological implications for the study of L2 writing processes are discussed.