The E3 ubiquitin ligase RNF20 regulates chromatin structure by monoubiquitinating histone H2B in transcription. Here, we show that RNF20 is localized to double-stranded DNA breaks (DSBs) independently of H2AX and is required for the DSB-induced H2B ubiquitination. In addition, RNF20 is required for the methylation of H3K4 at DSBs and the recruitment of the chromatin-remodeling factor SNF2h. Depletion of RNF20, depletion of SNF2h, or expression of the H2B mutant lacking the ubiquitination site (K120R) compromises resection of DNA ends and recruitment of RAD51 and BRCA1. Consequently, cells lacking RNF20 or SNF2h and cells expressing H2B K120R exhibit pronounced defects in homologous recombination repair (HRR) and enhanced sensitivity to radiation. Finally, the function of RNF20 in HRR can be partially bypassed by forced chromatin relaxation. Thus, the RNF20-mediated H2B ubiquitination at DSBs plays a critical role in HRR through chromatin remodeling.

DNA-dependent protein kinase (DNA-PK), consisting of Ku and DNA-PKcs subunits, is the key component of the non-homologous end-joining (NHEJ) pathway of DNA double strand break (DSB) repair. Although the kinase activity of DNA-PKcs is essential for NHEJ, thus far, no in vivo substrate has been conclusively identified except for an autophosphorylation site on DNA-PKcs itself (threonine 2609). Here we report the ionizing radiation (IR)-induced autophosphorylation of DNA-PKcs at a novel site, serine 2056, the phosphorylation of which is required for the repair of DSBs by NHEJ. Interestingly, IR-induced DNA-PKcs autophosphorylation is regulated in a cell cycle-dependent manner with attenuated phosphorylation in the S phase. In contrast, DNA replication-associated DSBs resulted in DNA-PKcs autophosphorylation and localization to DNA damage sites. These results indicate that although IR-induced DNAPKcs phosphorylation is attenuated in the S phase, DNA-PKcs is preferentially activated by the physiologically relevant DNA replication-associated DSBs at the sites of DNA synthesis.Repair of DNA double strand breaks (DSBs) 1 is critical for the maintenance of genome integrity, cell survival, and prevention of tumorigenesis (1, 2). In higher eukaryotes, non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) and homologous recombination (HR) are the two major pathways for DSB repair (3). HR requires the presence of a sister chromatid and is operational in the late S and G 2 phases of the cell cycle because of the availability of an optimally positioned sister chromatid (4). NHEJ, on other hand, does not depend on the presence of homologous DNA sequences and is the predominant pathway for DSB repair in mammalian cells (5). It was proposed that NHEJ is preferentially used in G 1 and early S phases of the cell cycle (6, 7). However, a recent report indicating that NHEJ-deficient cell lines are radiation-sensitive in all phases of the cell cycle suggests that NHEJ is important throughout the cell cycle (8). Clearly, the exact contribution of NHEJ in different phases of the cell cycle needs to be defined further.The NHEJ pathway of DSB repair requires both the DNAdependent protein kinase (DNA-PK) complex and the XRCC4/ DNA ligase IV complex, as well as possible additional accessory factors (5, 9, 10). DNA-PK, the key component of the NHEJ pathway, is composed of the Ku70/80 heterodimer and the catalytic subunit DNA-PKcs (11). Ku binds to DNA ends with very high affinity and is believed to function as the DNAbinding and regulatory subunit that recruits DNA-PKcs to breaks and stimulates its kinase activity (12, 13). DNA-PKcs is a member of the phosphatidylinositol-3-like kinase family that includes ATM (ataxia-telangiectasia mutated) and 15). Although the biochemical properties of DNA-PK have been extensively studied in vitro, it is still not clear how it functions in vivo in the context of NHEJ. Wild type DNA-PKcs, but not a kinase-dead mutant, is able to rescue the radiation sensitivity and DSB repair defect of DNA-PKcs-defective V3 cells demonstrati...

The catalytic subunit of DNA-dependent protein kinase (DNA-PKcs) is rapidly phosphorylated at the Thr-2609 cluster and Ser-2056 upon ionizing radiation (IR). Furthermore, DNAPKcs phosphorylation at both regions is critical for its role in DNA double strand break (DSB) repair as well as cellular resistance to radiation. IR-induced DNA-PKcs phosphorylation at Thr-2609 and Ser-2056, however, exhibits distinct kinetics indicating that they are differentially regulated. Although DNAPKcs autophosphorylates itself at Ser-2056 after IR, we have reported here that ATM mediates DNA-PKcs phosphorylation at Thr-2609 as well as at the adjacent (S/T)Q motifs within the Thr-2609 cluster. In addition, our data suggest that DNA-PKcsand ATM-mediated DNA-PKcs phosphorylations are cooperative and required for the full activation of DNA-PKcs and the subsequent DSB repair. Elimination of DNA-PKcs phosphorylation at both regions severely compromises radioresistance and DSB repair. Finally, our result provides a possible mechanism for the direct involvement of ATM in non-homologous end joining-mediated DSB repair.

Double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) derived from pathogen- or host-damaged cells triggers innate immune responses when exposed to cytoplasm. However, the machinery underlying the primary recognition of intracellular dsDNA is obscure. Here we show that the DNA damage sensor, meiotic recombination 11 homolog A (MRE11), serves as a cytosolic sensor for dsDNA. Cells with a mutation of MRE11 gene derived from a patient with ataxia-telangiectasia–like disorder, and cells in which Mre11 was knocked down, had defects in dsDNA-induced type I IFN production. MRE11 physically interacted with dsDNA in the cytoplasm and was required for activation of stimulator of IFN genes (STING) and IRF3. RAD50, a binding protein to MRE11, was also required for dsDNA responses, whereas NBS1, another binding protein to MRE11, was dispensable. Collectively, our results suggest that the MRE11–RAD50 complex plays important roles in recognition of dsDNA and initiation of STING-dependent signaling, in addition to its role in DNA-damage responses.

DNA double-strand breaks represent the most potentially serious damage to a genome; hence, many repair proteins are recruited to nuclear damage sites by as yet poorly characterized sensor mechanisms. Here, we show that NBS1, the gene product defective in Nijmegen breakage syndrome (NBS), physically interacts with histone, rather than damaged DNA, by direct binding to gamma-H2AX. We also demonstrate that NBS1 binding can occur in the absence of interaction with hMRE11 or BRCA1. Furthermore, this NBS1 physical interaction was reduced when anti-gamma-H2AX antibody was introduced into normal cells and was also delayed in AT cells, which lack the kinase activity for phosphorylation of H2AX. NBS1 has no DNA binding region but carries a combination of the fork-head associated (FHA) and the BRCA1 C-terminal domains (BRCT). We show that the FHA/BRCT domain of NBS1 is essential for this physical interaction, since NBS1 lacking this domain failed to bind to gamma-H2AX in cells, and a recombinant FHA/BRCT domain alone can bind to recombinant gamma-H2AX. Consequently, the FHA/BRCT domain is likely to have a crucial role for both binding to histone and for relocalization of hMRE11/hRAD50 nuclease complex to the vicinity of DNA damage.