Salmonella species Salmonella typhi and Salmonella paratyphi, types A, B, and C are the causative agents of enteric fever. This disease continues to pose a severe threat to public health, especially in developing countries. This study investigated the prevalence of typhoidal Salmonella infections and the associated risk factors in Kaduna Metropolis, Nigeria. Methods: A questionnaire was used to obtain information from 250 patients attending four selected government hospitals and 50 healthy individuals as the control. Blood samples from participants were obtained to determine the blood groups and genotypes, and stool specimens were used to isolate typhoidal Salmonella species. Results: Thirty cases were among symptomatic patients and two among controls showing a total prevalence of 10.6%. Among the 32 isolates, 25 were S. typhi (78.1%), and seven were S. paratyphi A (21.9%), revealing an approximate ratio of 4:1. Factors significantly associated with the infection prevalence included age, source of drinking water, and frequency of infection. Blood groups and genotypes were not statistically associated with the infection; however, individuals with blood group O and genotype AA were more commonly infected. Also, females, the age group 20-29, singles, and unemployed, showed more infections. Conclusion: The prevalence, the ratio of typhoidal Salmonella species, and the associated risk factors call for public health and control measures, including the provision of suitable drinking water and improving living and sanitary conditions.

Background: Pathogenic Salmonella species cause various types of infections ranging from mild gastroenteritis to life- threatening typhoid fever caused by Salmonella typhi , or paratyphoid fever caused by S. paratyphi A, B or C; of which S . paratyphi A is prevalent. Currently, treatment of typhoid infection is being hampered by the emergence of multidrug-resistant strains, while vaccines provide only temporal or partial protection. Objective: The aim of the study was to determine antibiotic resistance of typhoid causing Salmonella isolated from human stool. Methodology: A cross-sectional descriptive study was carried out in the capital city of Kaduna State, Nigeria. Questionnaires were administered to 300 consenting individuals; comprising 250 patients and 50 volunteering healthy individuals, to obtain relevant socio demographic and clinical information. Stool specimens were equally collected in sampling containers for isolation of typhoidal Salmonella on Salmonella Shigella Agar. Suspected typhoidal Salmonella colonies were confirmed by biochemical tests as S. typhi or S. paratyphi A, before antimicrobial susceptibility test was done using Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method. Diameters of zone of inhibitions were recorded and interpreted according to Clinical Laboratory Standards Institute guidelines. The data and results obtained were represented on tables and charts. Chi-square analysis was also used to determine statistical association among parameters and p-values ≤ 0.050 were considered significant. Results: Thirty-two (32) typhoidal Salmonella were isolated; 25 were S. typhi and seven S. paratyphi A. Thirty isolates came from patients while two were isolated among healthy individuals. High antibiotic resistance was observed with Augmentin (100%), Ceftazidime (87.5%), Cefuroxime (84.4%), Cefixime (84.4%) and Gentamicin (40.6%), while Ciprofloxacin (12.5%), Nitrofurantoin (12.5%) and Oflaxacin (18.8%) showed a lower resistance. Age, marital status and state of origin were socio demographic factors found to be associated with the antibiotic resistance. Also, frequency of infection, presenting symptoms and sampling duration were statistically associated with the antibiotic resistance. Conclusion: Multi-drug resistance, high antibiotic resistance of typhoidal Salmonella and factors associated with it in this study, should awaken public health concerns in curbing the excesses of typhoidal Salmonella.