The Bronze Age of Eurasia (around 3000-1000 BC) was a period of major cultural changes. However, there is debate about whether these changes resulted from the circulation of ideas or from human migrations, potentially also facilitating the spread of languages and certain phenotypic traits. We investigated this by using new, improved methods to sequence low-coverage genomes from 101 ancient humans from across Eurasia. We show that the Bronze Age was a highly dynamic period involving large-scale population migrations and replacements, responsible for shaping major parts of present-day demographic structure in both Europe and Asia. Our findings are consistent with the hypothesized spread of Indo-European languages during the Early Bronze Age. We also demonstrate that light skin pigmentation in Europeans was already present at high frequency in the Bronze Age, but not lactose tolerance, indicating a more recent onset of positive selection on lactose tolerance than previously thought.

The recently found metal casting mould from Gaj Oławski (SW Poland) was designed for the production of socketed axes typical for later stages of the Bronze Age in Poland (ca. 1100-900 BC). This unique artefact is a half of a durable, two-piece wedge-shaped mould and measures 17.5× 7.2×4.0 cm. The surface of the mould is covered copper oxides and carbonates, and the remnant of beeswax was found on its inner surface. The metal forming mould consists of cored dendrites of Cu-dominated (Cu >96.5 wt%, up to 2.2 wt% Sn) and Cu impoverished (Cu~86.0 wt%, Sñ 9.4 wt%, some Sb, As and Ag) end compositions and volumetrically subordinate α+δ eutectoid. The "as cast" structure of the metal shows that the mould was never used for molten metal casting. Since this kind of moulds was used for mass casting of metal, the Gaj Oławski one was probably never used, and the beeswax is the remain of its coating. This is the first remain of the Bronze Age beeswax described in metallurgical context in Europe.

Metal casting moulds, designed mostly to produce only one type of artefact, are a fascinating group of artefacts that have been recorded in many parts of Bronze Age Europe. Despite some examples of moulds for ornaments, the use of metal moulds is strongly connected with axe production. Moreover, most of the moulds were deposited deliberately in bogs and rivers in a similar way as axes. A recent find of such a mould from Gaj Oławski in southwestern Poland inspired us to bring together a small collection of bronze casting moulds from Poland. In our study, we focus on the contexts and possible functions of metal casting moulds with a particular focus on the recent find. Metal casting moulds dated back to the Bronze Age are rare in Poland with only five examples of such finds known to date. Such moulds were discovered at Pawłowiczki, Brzeg Głogowski, Kiełpino and Rosko. Their distribution is random even if the sites occur only in western Poland they are too few to speak of any pattern of deposition ( fig. 1). A complete, two-piece item from Pawłowiczki -probably part of a deposit -was found in 1869; however, the precise location is unknown. Based on the axe's characteristics, the mould can be dated to the 5th period of the Bronze Age (i.e. ca. 900 -700 BC). At Brzeg Głogowski, a complete two-piece mould was found, however no details of its discovery are known. Together with the mould, a complete socketed axe was found which had been cast in this mould ( fig. 4d). As at Pawłowiczki, this mould can be dated to the 5th period of the Bronze Age (i.e. ca. 900 -700 BC). The bog hoard from Kiełpino was discovered in 1884, and among a number of bronze ornaments and elements of horse gear, an iron knife and a lump of iron ore, there were also two complete two-piece moulds and two socketed axes that fitted them. The deposit from Rosko consists mostly of bronze socketed axes decorated with vertical ribs (67 items), and two, two-piece bronze casting moulds (figs. 5, 6), which makes the deposit an excellent example of selected deposition. The deposit contained mostly axes that were typical for large parts of south-western Poland and may be dated to ca. 900 -700 BC. According to an opinion that is common in Polish sources, metal casting moulds, due to their low resistance to high temperatures, were used exclusively for making wax or lead models and not bronze products themselves. The archaeometric investigation's aim was to identify both the chemical composition of the mould (including the alloy's main elements and the molecular composition of the corrosion layers), and the original purpose of the item. There are two types of data obtained for the mould from Gaj Oławski. One group refers to the mineralogical composition of the item and proved the relative low tin content of it. The result corresponds with the opinion that the axes -regarding the alloys and casting techniques -display relatively lower quality. This also fits the view that the low tin content may indicate better resistance against high temperatures and direct metal ...

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