Camel milk is an important commodity in the arid and semi-arid lands where it forms their basic diet, a major source of income and serves significant cultural function to the pastoralists. However, camel milk production is faced with challenges that contributes to the camel milk post-harvest losses due to poor quality and safety. This study aimed at determining the risk factors that may contribute to camel milk quality losses along the Isiolo camel milk value chain. The survey data was collected through structured questionnaire and key informant interview while the microbiological counts data were determined using ISO methods. There was poor hygiene at the herd level where high Staphylococcus aureus count was found on the camel udder swab, milkers' hand swab, and milking container which recorded counts of 1.4×10 4 cfu/cm 2 , 1.5×10 4 cfu/cm 2 , and 5.9×10 3 cfu/ml, respectively. In the other chain nodes, the hygiene was significantly (p<0.05) different with milk hands of retailers around Isiolo town, at the cooling hub/bulking milk and milk retailers in Nairobi Eastleigh area recording S. aureus counts of 4.9×10 3 , 1.3×10 4 , and 3.7×10 3 cfu/cm 2 , respectively. There was problem accessing adequate potable water at the herd level than at the other chain nodes. The plastic milk containers were not disinfected with any chemical sanitizes after washing, however the smoke fumigated them. Camel disease management was poor. Both sick and health camels were milked and the milk bulked together. This therefore indicates that hygiene could be one of the most important contributor to milk deterioration along the chain. Improvement of hygiene along the Isiolo camel milk value chain can help reduce milk post-harvest losses.

The prevalence of stunting is high in Malawi, affecting about one third (31.2%) of children aged 6-23 months. Persistent inappropriate feeding practices are some of the major causes of stunting in young children. This study was conducted to determine risk factors associated with stunting among infants and young children aged 6-23 months in Dedza district in Central Malawi. A cross-sectional study was conducted in 12 villages in Mayani Extension Planning Area (EPA), targeting households with children aged 6-23 months. A structured questionnaire was used to collect data from the primary caregivers on household socioeconomic characteristics, household food availability, dietary diversity, responsive feeding practices among mothers and caregivers, age of introduction of complementary foods, frequency of feeding, types of foods and dietary diversity of children. Anthropometric data (weight and recumbent length) for children were measured using standard procedures. The Multivariate Logistic Regression Analysis was performed to study the independent associations of various determinants on prevalence of stunting with prevalence of stunting as a dependent variable. A total of 303 households were sampled randomly; mothers and caregivers were interviewed and 306 children were assessed for nutritional status. Introduction of complementary food varied among mothers, 9.3% introduced earlier than 6 months, 71.1% at 6 months and 10.2% later than 6 months. Dietary diversity was low but increased significantly with age categories of children, 2.9% for children 6-8 months, 15.5% for 9-11 months and 24.6% for 12-23 months (p<0.01). Minimum meal frequency was significantly (p<0.001) higher in children 6-8 months (58.7%) than in children 12-23 months (1.9%). Overall, out of the 306 children 47.1% [95% CI (41.6-53.1)] were stunted. Stunting was significantly different between male [54.5%; 95% CI (47.0-63.5)] and female (39.5%; 95% CI (31.4-47.6)] children. Age of child when complementary feeding was started [AOR: 0.138; 95% CI (0.22-0.88)], number of young children in the household [AOR: 2.548; 95% CI (1.304-4.981)] and teenage mothers [AOR: 1.265; 95% CI (0.379-1.724)] were significant independent predictors of stunting. It can be concluded that prevalence of stunting is high among infants and young children in Dedza district. Training mothers and caregivers on recommended age of introducing complementary food to a child, composition of such food, dangers of teenage pregnancies and importance of child spacing should form part of nutrition education.

The cow, the milking and milk handling procedures at the farm level expose the milk to potential risk of contamination with spoilage microorganisms. Milk contamination if not prevented will lead to milk losses along the dairy value chain. The objective of this study was therefore to identify the risk factors associated with contamination of milk with spoilage microorganisms at the farms in rural and peri urban in Nakuru County Kenya. A survey was conducted using a pre-tested semi structured questionnaires (250) and an observation checklist to identify the risk factors. A total of 560 samples obtained from the following identified contamination sources; the udder, hands, milking and bulking containers and water sources were analyzed for total viable counts (TVC), Coliform counts (CC), thermophillic bacteria counts (ThBC) and psychrophilic bacteria counts (PBC). The results from the survey showed that only 11% of rural farmers practiced hand and udder drying compared to 50% in peri-urban. Water treatment by either chlorination or boiling was done by 11% in rural and 30% in periurban respectively. Regression of risk factors versus farm gate milk from viable colony counts, showed that udder swabs were the highest source of contamination of milk (r =2.73). In the rural, hands of milking personnel recorded the highest for TVC (log 10 3.7 CFU/ml). It is evident from the results that effective udder cleaning and observation of high personal hygiene by the hand milkers may reduce the risk of microbial contamination in both systems of milk production.

There are increasing expectations on the compliance of food products to safety and quality standards due to consumer demand for high-quality food. The aim of this study was to determine the quality tests that are carried out on raw milk and its utilization at three milk collection centers in Olenguruone and Dundori regions of Nakuru as well as some selected dairy farms. Using a semi-structured questionnaire, data were collected from milk collection centers’ staff and farmers. Milk sampling for quality control testing was done at both the cooperative delivery points and farm level. The quality of milk handled and stored in different containers was assessed. Descriptive statistics, Chi-square and logistic regression analysis were carried out on the data. Results indicated that the average quantity of milk received at all milk collection centers was about 3687 liters per day. It was noted that most of the milk collection centers’ staff (operators) had certificates or diplomas in dairy science. Their average job experience period in the milk sector was 7 years. Majority of the farmers (90%) and transporters (94%) used plastic containers for milk handling and storage. Farmers who used plastic containers for milking were approximately three times more likely to have their milk rejected compared to those who used mazzi cans, aluminium or stainless-steel containers (p<0.05; Odds ratio =3.20). The alcohol and lactometer tests were carried out on milk received at all collection centers studied. Resazurin test was only carried out in one collection center at Olenguruone that had the required laboratory equipment. Milk quality assessment was not done at the farm level. Traditional fermented milk was the common dairy product produced from evening milk in most dairy farmers’ households. Regular education programs and seminars on milk safety and quality should be provided to both collection centers’ operators and farmers.

Camel milk contributes up to 30% of pastoral community annual caloric intake making it one of the main diets for the pastoral community. In addition, camel milk is a major source of income and serves significant cultural functions in pastoral communities. Despite these, camel milk production and marketing is faced with a number of challenges, especially poor handling practices that contribute to high post-harvest losses due to poor quality and safety. Poor handling practices have been reported to be associated with poor knowledge and practices of food hygiene and safety among the pastoral camel milk value chain actors. The study aimed at determining the level of food hygiene and safety knowledge and practices of camel milk value chain actors. A structured questionnaire, focus group discussions and key informant interviews were used to collect data on hygienic milk handling knowledge and practices along the camel milk value chain. Each point along the chain showed a significant difference (p<0.05) in knowledge in food safety and hygiene. The study established that herdsmen had significantly (p<0.05) lower knowledge than women retailing and collecting/ bulking milk at Isiolo town and its environs with a mean score of 49 ± 9%. The women retailing at Isiolo town scored 62 ± 9% of the food hygiene and safety questions correctly. The women at the collection/bulking centre had the highest knowledge level with a score of 69 ± 10%. The average score along Isiolo camel milk value chain was 60 ± 9%. The respondents showed low knowledge in answering questions regarding spoilage microorganisms and effective cleaning of containers. About 53% of women retailers used rejected/spoiled milk for household consumption. This could result in a high food safety risk. Therefore, training of actors along the camel milk value chain could be the best way to improving their knowledge on food safety and hygiene.