The goal of this research was to improve scab resistance of apple by transformation with genes encoding chitinolytic enzymes from the bio-control organism Trichoderma harzianum. The endochitinase gene, as cDNA and genomic clones, was transferred into apple cv. Marshall McIntosh by Agrobacterium-transformation. A total of 15 lines were identified as transgenic by NPTII enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and polymerase chain reaction and confirmed by Southern analysis. Substantial differences in endochitinase activity were detected among different lines by enzymatic assay and western analysis. Eight lines propagated as grafted and own-rooted plants were inoculated with Venturia inaequalis. Six of these transgenic lines expressing endochitinase were more resistant than nontransformed cv. Marshall McIntosh. Disease severity compared with cv. Marshall McIntosh was reduced by 0 to 99.7% (number of lesions), 0 to 90% (percentage of leaf area infected), and 1 to 56% (conidia recovered) in the transgenic lines tested. Endochitinase also had negative effects on the growth of both inoculated and uninoculated plants. There was a significant negative correlation between the level of endochitinase production and both the amount of disease and plant growth.

Genes from the biocontrol fungus Trichoderma atroviride encoding the antifungal proteins endochitinase or exochitinase (N-acetyl-beta-D-hexosaminidase) were inserted into 'Marshall McIntosh' apple singly and in combination. The genes were driven by a modified CaMV35S promoter. The resulting plants were screened for resistance to Venturia inaequalis, the causal agent of apple scab, and for effects of enzyme expression on growth. Disease resistance was correlated with the level of expression of either enzyme when expressed alone but exochitinase was less effective than endochitinase. The level of expression of endochitinase was negatively correlated with plant growth while exochitinase had no consistent effect on this character. Plants expressing both enzymes simultaneously were more resistant than plants expressing either single enzyme at the same level; analyses indicated that the two enzymes acted synergistically to reduce disease. Selected lines, especially one expressing low levels of endochitinase activity and moderate levels of exochitinase activity, were highly resistant in growth chamber trials and had negligible reduction in vigor relative to control plants. We believe that this is the first report of resistance in plants induced by expression of an N-acetylhexosaminidase and is the first report of in planta synergy between an exochitinase and an endochitinase.

To root tissue-cultured apple cultivars, shoots from proliferating cultures were first transferred to root induction medium with IBA for 1 week in the dark. Shoots were later transferred to the same medium without IBA and incubated under light for elongation of the roots. Rooted shoots were then transferred to Jiffy-7s supplemented with biological plant protectant and fertilizer, and incubated in plastic humidity trays. After 2 to 3 weeks, plants were transferred to pots and covered with plastic bags to facilitate acclimation. This technique has resulted in 70% to 100% of shoots selected in vitro producing vigorously growing, healthy plants in the greenhouse. Chemical name used: indolebutyric acid (IBA).

The overall goal of our research is to develop an efficient transformation and regeneration system for `McIntosh' apple. The first objective was to determine the optimum combination of Gelrite (G) and agar (A) to maximize regeneration and minimize vitrification. Treatments included the following combinations of agar (in g–liter–1) and Gelrite (in g–liter–1): 1) 7 and 0; 2) 5.25 and 0.625; 3) 3.5 and 1.875; 4) 1.75 and 1.875; and 5) 0 and 2.5. There were 10 replications, and a single petri plate containing six leaf pieces was the unit of replication. Both 5.25(A) and 0.62(G) and 3.5(A) and 1.25(G) provided high regeneration of healthy, nonvitrified shoots. Since modification of media affects the concentration of antibiotics used in selection due to precipitation of antibiotics, the second objective was to determine the optimal concentration of antibiotic for the selection and regeneration of transformed `McIntosh' on gelrite–agar-based media. Kanamycin was tested at 0, 10, 25, 50, 75, and 100 μg–ml–1 and paromomycin was tested at 0, 50, 100, 150, 200, and 250 μg–ml–1. Antibiotic selection will be discussed relative to optimum concentration and efficiency of selection.