Recent observations of NGC 1068 and other AGN support the idea of a geometrically and optically thick dust torus surrounding the central supermassive black hole and accretion disk of AGN. In type 2 AGN, the torus is seen roughly edge-on, leading to obscuration of the central radiation source and a silicate absorption feature near 10 µm. While most of the current torus models distribute the dust smoothly, there is growing evidence that the dust must be arranged in clouds. We describe a new method for modeling near-and mid-infrared emission of 3-dimensional clumpy tori using Monte Carlo simulations. We calculate the radiation fields of individual clouds at various distances from the AGN and distribute these clouds within the torus region. The properties of the individual clouds and their distribution within the torus are determined from a theoretical approach of self-gravitating clouds close to the shear limit in a gravitational potential. We demonstrate that clumpiness in AGN tori can overcome the problem of over-pronounced silicate features.Finally, we present model calculations for the prototypical Seyfert 2 galaxy NGC 1068 and compare them to recent high-resolution measurements. Our model is able to reproduce both the SED and the interferometric observations of NGC 1068 in the near-and mid-infrared.

Context. Optical long-baseline interferometry is moving a crucial step forward with the advent of general-user scientific instruments that equip large aperture and hectometric baseline facilities, such as the Very Large Telescope Interferometer (VLTI). Aims. AMBER is one of the VLTI instruments that combines up to three beams with low, moderate and high spectral resolutions in order to provide milli-arcsecond spatial resolution for compact astrophysical sources in the near-infrared wavelength domain. Its main specifications are based on three key programs on young stellar objects, active galactic nuclei central regions, masses, and spectra of hot extra-solar planets. Methods. These key science goals led to scientific specifications, which were used to propose and then validate the instrument concept. AMBER uses single-mode fibers to filter the entrance signal and to reach highly accurate, multiaxial three-beam combination, yielding three baselines and a closure phase, three spectral dispersive elements, and specific self-calibration procedures. Results. The AMBER measurements yield spectrally dispersed calibrated visibilities, color-differential complex visibilities, and a closure phase allows astronomers to contemplate rudimentary imaging and highly accurate visibility and phase differential measurements. AMBER was installed in 2004 at the Paranal Observatory. We describe here the present implementation of the instrument in the configuration with which the astronomical community can access it. Conclusions. After two years of commissioning tests and preliminary observations, AMBER has produced its first refereed publications, allowing assessment of its scientific potential.

Aims. In this paper, we present an innovative data reduction method for single-mode interferometry. It has been specifically developed for the AMBER instrument, the three-beam combiner of the Very Large Telescope Interferometer, but it can be derived for any single-mode interferometer. Methods. The algorithm is based on a direct modelling of the fringes in the detector plane. As such, it requires a preliminary calibration of the instrument in order to obtain the calibration matrix that builds the linear relationship between the interferogram and the interferometric observable, which is the complex visibility. Once the calibration procedure has been performed, the signal processing appears to be a classical least-square determination of a linear inverse problem. From the estimated complex visibility, we derive the squared visibility, the closure phase, and the spectral differential phase. Results. The data reduction procedures have been gathered into the so-called amdlib software, now available for the community, and are presented in this paper. Furthermore, each step in this original algorithm is illustrated and discussed from various on-sky observations conducted with the VLTI, with a focus on the control of the data quality and the effective execution of the data reduction procedures. We point out the present limited performances of the instrument due to VLTI instrumental vibrations which are difficult to calibrate.

Aims. We present the first multi-epoch study that includes concurrent mid-infrared and radio interferometry of an oxygen-rich Mira star. Results. The modeling of our MIDI data results in phase-dependent continuum photospheric angular diameters of 9.0 ± 0.3 mas (phase 0.42), 7.9 ± 0.1 mas (0.55), 9.7 ± 0.1 mas (1.16), and 9.5 ± 0.4 mas (1.27). The dust shell can best be modeled with Al 2 O 3 grains using phase-dependent inner boundary radii between 1.8 and 2.4 photospheric radii. The dust shell appears to be more compact with greater optical depth near visual minimum (τ V ∼ 2.5), and more extended with lower optical depth after visual maximum (τ V ∼ 1.5). The ratios of the 43.1 GHz/42.8 GHz SiO maser ring radii to the photospheric radii are 2.2 ± 0.3/2.1 ± 0.2 (phase 0.44), 2.4 ± 0.3/2.3 ± 0.4 (0.55), and 2.1 ± 0.3/1.9 ± 0.2 (1.15). The maser spots mark the region of the molecular atmospheric layers just beyond the steepest decrease in the mid-infrared model intensity profile. Their velocity structure indicates a radial gas expansion. Conclusions. S Ori shows significant phase-dependences of photospheric radii and dust shell parameters. Al 2 O 3 dust grains and SiO maser spots form at relatively small radii of ∼1.8−2.4 photospheric radii. Our results suggest increased mass loss and dust formation close to the surface near the minimum visual phase, when Al 2 O 3 dust grains are co-located with the molecular gas and the SiO maser shells, and a more expanded dust shell after visual maximum. Silicon does not appear to be bound in dust, as our data show no sign of silicate grains.

Aims. We present one-dimensional aperture synthesis imaging of the red supergiant Betelgeuse (α Ori) with VLTI/AMBER. We reconstructed for the first time one-dimensional images in the individual CO first overtone lines. Our aim is to probe the dynamics of the inhomogeneous atmosphere and its time variation. Methods. Betelgeuse was observed between 2.28 and 2.31 μm with VLTI/AMBER using the 16-32-48 m telescope configuration with a spectral resolution up to 12 000 and an angular resolution of 9.8 mas. The good nearly one-dimensional uv coverage allows us to reconstruct one-dimensional projection images (i.e., one-dimensional projections of the object's two-dimensional intensity distributions).Results. The reconstructed one-dimensional projection images reveal that the star appears differently in the blue wing, line center, and red wing of the individual CO lines. The one-dimensional projection images in the blue wing and line center show a pronounced, asymmetrically extended component up to ∼1.3 R , while those in the red wing do not show such a component. The observed onedimensional projection images in the lines can be reasonably explained by a model in which the CO gas within a region more than half as large as the stellar size is moving slightly outward with 0-5 km s −1 , while the gas in the remaining region is infalling fast with 20-30 km s −1 . A comparison between the CO line AMBER data taken in 2008 and 2009 shows a significant time variation in the dynamics of the CO line-forming region in the photosphere and the outer atmosphere. In contrast to the line data, the reconstructed one-dimensional projection images in the continuum show only a slight deviation from a uniform disk or limb-darkened disk. We derive a uniform-disk diameter of 42.05 ± 0.05 mas and a power-law-type limb-darkened disk diameter of 42.49 ± 0.06 mas and a limb-darkening parameter of (9.7 ± 0.5) × 10 −2 . This latter angular diameter leads to an effective temperature of 3690 ± 54 K for the continuum-forming layer. These diameters confirm that the near-IR size of Betelgeuse was nearly constant over the last 18 years, in marked contrast to the recently reported noticeable decrease in the mid-IR size. The continuum data taken in 2008 and 2009 reveal no or only marginal time variations, much smaller than the maximum variation predicted by the current three-dimensional convection simulations. Conclusions. Our two-epoch AMBER observations show that the outer atmosphere extending to ∼1.3-1.4 R is asymmetric and its dynamics is dominated by vigorous, inhomogeneous large-scale motions, whose overall nature changes drastically within one year. This is likely linked to the wind-driving mechanism in red supergiants.