The proinflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor (TNF) alpha signals both cell survival and death. The biological outcome of TNFalpha treatment is determined by the balance between NF-kappaB and Jun kinase (JNK) signaling; NF-kappaB promotes survival, whereas JNK enhances cell death. Critically, identity of a JNK substrate that promotes TNFalpha-induced apoptosis has been outstanding. Here we show that TNFalpha-mediated JNK activation accelerates turnover of the NF-kappaB-induced antiapoptotic protein c-FLIP, an inhibitor of caspase-8. This is not due to direct c-FLIP phosphorylation but depends on JNK-mediated phosphorylation and activation of the E3 ubiquitin ligase Itch, which specifically ubiquitinates c-FLIP and induces its proteasomal degradation. JNK1 or Itch deficiency or treatment with a JNK inhibitor renders mice resistant in three distinct models of TNFalpha-induced acute liver failure, and cells from these mice do not display inducible c-FLIP(L) ubiquitination and degradation. Thus, JNK antagonizes NF-kappaB during TNFalpha signaling by promoting the proteasomal elimination of c-FLIP(L).

Sustained calcium signaling induces a state of anergy or antigen unresponsiveness in T cells, mediated through calcineurin and the transcription factor NFAT. We show here that Ca(2+)-induced anergy is a multistep program that is implemented at least partly through proteolytic degradation of specific signaling proteins. Calcineurin increased mRNA and protein of the E3 ubiquitin ligases Itch, Cbl-b and GRAIL and induced expression of Tsg101, the ubiquitin-binding component of the ESCRT-1 endosomal sorting complex. Subsequent stimulation or homotypic cell adhesion promoted membrane translocation of Itch and the related protein Nedd4, resulting in degradation of two key signaling proteins, PKC-theta and PLC-gamma1. T cells from Itch- and Cbl-b-deficient mice were resistant to anergy induction. Anergic T cells showed impaired calcium mobilization after TCR triggering and were unable to maintain a mature immunological synapse, instead showing late disorganization of the outer ring containing lymphocyte function-associated antigen 1. Our results define a complex molecular program that links gene transcription induced by calcium and calcineurin to a paradoxical impairment of signal transduction in anergic T cells.

Antigen-specific immunotolerance limits the expansion of self-reactive T cells involved in autoimmune diseases. Here, we show that the E3 ubiquitin ligase Cbl-b is upregulated in T cells after tolerizing signals. Loss of Cbl-b in mice results in impaired induction of T cell tolerance both in vitro and in vivo. Importantly, rechallenge of Cbl-b mutant mice with the tolerizing antigen results in massive lethality. Moreover, ablation of Cbl-b resulted in exacerbated autoimmunity. Mechanistically, loss of Cbl-b rescues reduced calcium mobilization of anergic T cells, which was attributed to Cbl-b-mediated regulation of PLCgamma-1 phosphorylation. Our results show a critical role for Cbl-b in the regulation of peripheral tolerance and anergy of T cells.

Understanding the developmental mechanisms of T follicular helper (TFH) cells in humans is a highly relevant topic to clinic. However, factors that drive human CD4+ helper T (TH) cell differentiation program towards TFH cells remain largely undefined. Here we show that TGF-β provides critical additional signals for the transcription factors STAT3 and STAT4 to promote the initial TFH differentiation programs in humans. This mechanism does not appear to be shared with mouse TH cells. The developing human Bcl-6+ TFH cells also expressed RORγt, a transcription factor typically expressed by TH17 cells. Our study documents a mechanism by which TFH and TH17 cells co-emerge in inflammatory environments in humans, as often observed in many human autoimmune diseases.

Transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) signaling in naive T cells induces expression of the transcription factor Foxp3, a 'master' regulator of regulatory T cells (T reg cells). However, the molecular mechanisms leading to Foxp3 induction remain unclear. Here we show that Itch −/− T cells were resistant to TGF-β treatment and had less Foxp3 expression. The E3 ubiquitin ligase Itch associated with and promoted conjugation of ubiquitin to the transcription factor TIEG1. Itch cooperated with TIEG1 to induce Foxp3 expression, which was reversed by TIEG1 deficiency. Functionally, 'TGF-β-converted' T reg cells generated from TIEG1-deficient mice were unable to suppress airway inflammation in vivo. These results suggest TIEG and Itch contribute to a ubiquitindependent nonproteolytic pathway that regulates inducible Foxp3 expression and the control of allergic responses.Allergic asthma is a chronic inflammatory disease of the airways characterized by higher serum immunoglobulin E (IgE) concentrations, airway hyper-responsiveness, excessive airway mucus production, lung eosinophilia and airway remodeling. Differentiation of CD4 + T cells into T helper type 2 (T H 2) cells renders them able to produce the cytokines interleukin 4 (IL-4), IL-5 and IL-13, which are critical for driving asthmatic pathogenesis 1,2 . The induction of T H 2 differentiation is regulated by many factors, including the properties of the antigens, the duration of stimulation, and genetic factors. In addition, the T H 2-mediated immune responses are counterbalanced by tolerogenic mechanisms that prevent excessive reactions. One of the tolerance mechanisms involves regulatory T cells (T reg cells), which limit allergic responses 3 . In mouse models of allergic asthma, repeated delivery of antigen to the respiratory tract results in inhibition of allergic responses to the same antigen after subsequent challenges 4 . Published studies have shown that repeated treatment with a low dose of antigen induces the generation of Foxp3 + CD4 + CD25 + T reg cell population, which accounts for the attenuation of T H 2-mediated airway inflammation 5,6 . T reg cells represent a unique subpopulation of CD4 + T cells that suppress the effector function of other types of T cells and