In this study, we examined 82 accounts of "issue selling" to better understand managers' implicit theories for successfully shaping change from below by directing the attention of top management. The study reveals the importance of various issue-selling moves, including packaging, involvement, and timing. Managerial accounts uncover three kinds of contextual knowledge that are critical to the execution of issue-selling moves. The study shows managers actively shaping the issue-selling microprocesses that contribute to organizational change.

Swimming in the nudibranch Melibe leonina consists of five types of movements that occur in the following sequence: (1) withdrawal, (2) lateral flattening, (3) a series of lateral flexions, (4) unrolling and swinging, and (5) termination. Melibe swims spontaneously, as well as in response to different types of aversive stimuli. In this study, swimming was elicited by contact with the tube feet of the predatory sea star Pycnopodia helianthoides, pinching with forceps, or application of a 1 M KCl solution. During an episode of swimming, the duration of swim cycles (2.7 +/- 0.2 s [mean +/- SEM], n = 29) and the amplitude of lateral flexions remained relatively constant. However, the latency between the application of a stimulus and initiation of swimming was more variable, as was the duration of an episode of swimming. For example, when touched with a single tube foot from a sea star (n = 32), the latency to swim was 7.0 +/- 2.4 s, and swimming continued for 53.7 +/- 9.4 s, whereas application of KCl resulted in a longer latency to swim (22.3 +/- 4.5 s) and more prolonged swimming episodes (174.9 +/- 32.1 s). Swimming individuals tended to move in a direction perpendicular to the long axis of the foot, which propelled them laterally when they were oriented with the oral hood toward the surface of the water. The results of this study indicate that swimming in Melibe, like that in several other molluscs, is a stereotyped fixed action pattern that can be reliably elicited in the laboratory. These characteristics, along with the large identifiable neurons typical of many molluscs, make swimming in this nudibranch amenable to neuroethological analyses.

SYNOPSIS. The nudibranch Melibe leonina swims by rhythmically flexing its body from side to side at a frequency of 1 cycle every 2-5 sec. Melibe swim spontaneously, when they are dislodged from the substrate, or when they come in contact with predatory seastars, such as Pycnopodia helianthoides. Intracellular recordings obtained from semi-intact swimming Melibe reveal a population of ϳ15 swim motoneurons (SMNs) in each pedal ganglion. In general, SMNs in one pedal ganglion fire out-of-phase with SMNs in the opposite pedal ganglion, resulting in rhythmic side-to-side bending movements. In isolated brains, recordings from SMNs yield similar results, indicating the existence of a swim central pattern generator (CPG). There is no evidence for synaptic interactions between SMNs and either inhibiting or exciting SMNs has no impact on the swim pattern. The SMNs are driven by a CPG consisting of 4 interneurons; 2 in the cerebropleural ganglia and 1 in each pedal ganglion. Appropriate bursting activity in the swim interneurons is necessary for swimming to occur. Either hyperpolarization or depolarization of any of the 4 CPG interneurons disrupts the normal swim pattern. Swimming behavior, and the fictive swim motor program expressed by the isolated brain, are inhibited by light and nitric oxide donors. NADPH-diaphorase staining and nitric oxide synthase (NOS) immunocytochemistry of Melibe brains suggests the source of nitric oxide might be a pair of bilaterally symmetrical cells located in the cerebropleural ganglia.