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Purpose -During the last ten years, the International Labour Organisation (ILO), and some other international organizations, have increasingly addressed human trafficking from a "forced labour" perspective. The purpose of this paper is to clarify the terminology in relation to human trafficking and forced labour, to highlight the links between them, and to provide a critique of the ILO approach. It also aims to make the case for the implementation of a specific international instrument to address the link between trafficking and forced labour. Design/methodology/approach -This paper compares the definitions of human trafficking and forced labour, the link between them in the United Nations, European and ILO instruments. Findings -Although human trafficking is a criminal activity, the ILO identifies it as a form of forced labour. The paper concludes that, no matter what role the trafficking victims have in participating in the criminal activities, they should be viewed as victims and witnesses. They should not be viewed as "workers" or "labourers". Any minor under the age of 18 years, in accordance with the European and international instruments, has no legal capacity to give consent to being exploited. Originality/value -This paper argues that the international and European instruments do not specifically address the link between trafficking and forced labour. There is a need for a specific international instrument prescribing the link between trafficking and forced labour. In the absence of such an international instrument, there is a piece meal approach by international bodies and countries toward the regulation of trafficking and forced labour.

Purpose -The International Labour Organisation (ILO) adopted a new Convention concerning the Prohibition and Immediate Action for the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labour (No. 182) in 1999. The aim of this paper is to analyse the United Nations (UN), ILO, Council of Europe (COE) instruments related to child exploitation and discuss whether child pornography and prostitution are economic crime or work that should be regulated. Design/methodology/approach -This paper compares the definitions of child pornography and prostitution and child labour in the UN, ILO, COE instruments. Findings -Although child labour does not imply child prostitution and pornography, the Convention No. 182 Article 3 includes child prostitution and pornography in the term "child labour" and identifies child pornography and prostitution as among the worst forms of child labour. The paper concludes that, no matter what role the children have in participating in the sexual activities, they should be viewed as victims and witnesses. They should not be viewed as "sex workers" or "child labourers". The view that sexual exploitation of children is a kind of labour might be seen to legitimise it in some countries and might cause more trauma for children. Originality/value -This paper argues that the ILO should have either considered child pornography and prostitution as a kind of modern slavery in a separate paragraph in the C. 182 or introduced a separate instrument to combat against child sexual exploitation.

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