The food security discourse has shifted from a narrow focus on food supply to a greater consideration of access, entitlements and sustainability. An emphasis on vulnerability has coincided with increased recognition that the causes of food insecurity are the result of a complex interaction between ecological, social, political and economic events and processes. Understanding the strategies that people employ to respond to these risks is critical to identifying pathways for change towards greater food security. We explore people's explanations of and responses in the context of changes to their livelihoods and the wider social-ecological system (SES) in which they are embedded. An integrated vulnerability framework, drawing on a SES approach, was applied to structure data collection, analysis and discussion in a food insecure region in Nepal. Using in-depth interviews, focus groups and historical data, we have examined negotiation processes, decision-making, actions and interactions within socialecological practices. Four distinct narratives and responses emerge-those of withdrawal, resistance, maintaining and/ or adapting to food insecure situations. These stories reveal the complexity of managing the lived experience of food insecurity. They highlight the need for adaptive policy responses and point towards pathways that are likely to contribute to greater food security.

Through the lens of apple growing and by employing a social-ecological systems approach, this paper seeks to understand how identity and biodiversity both contribute to place formation. This paper compares two apple-growing regions, Jumla in Nepal and Harcourt in Australia by analysing qualitative interviews and historical documents. The study finds that identity and place play an important role in the way growers interact with their local landscapes. This paper argues that sustainable landscapes can be realised through diverse production systems that adhere to physical place limitations and also adapt to longterm changes in social and physical conditions.

receiving treatment for tuberculosis in Soweto, South Africa. A composite diagnostic standard for Streptococcus pneumoniae was considered positive if any of routine blood culture, good quality sputum culture or Gram stain, urinary immunochromatographic testing (ICT) for pneumococcal C-polysaccharide (Binax® Now) or lytA real-time (rt) PCR on blood were positive for pneumococcus or lytA rtPCR on NPS was ≥8000 copies/ml. Other bacterial aetiologies were identified by routine blood cultures and sputum cultures, mycobacterium tuberculosis (TB) was assessed by acid-fast staining of sputum. Multiplex rtPCR for respiratory viruses and atypical bacterial pathogens (Fast-track diagnostics Respiratory pathogens plus) was used on NPA and triplex rtPCR for S. pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus and Haemophilus influenzae from whole blood.Results: Among 280 HIV-infected persons with CAP, pneumococcus was the most frequently identified organism (n = 151 [53.9%], of which 79 [28.2%] were monoinfections; 75 [26.8%] by molecular diagnostics only), followed by TB (n = 69 [24.6%], of which 39 [13.9%] were monoinfections). 48 (17.1%) viral or mycoplasma infections were identified (10 as monoinfections, 38 as combinations mostly with pneumococcus [n = 32]). Staphylococcus aureus and Haemophilus influenzae were frequently detected in the nasopharynx, but only rarely isolated from blood or sputum cultures. Up to 5 different organisms were simultaneously present. No aetiology was identified in 22.9% of patients.Conclusion: Using a combination of traditional and molecular methods, an infectious aetiology could be identified in the majority of episodes of acute CAP in HIV-infected South African adults. A large proportion was attributable to polymicrobial infections, most of which included the pneumococcus or tuberculosis. Viral monoinfections were relatively infrequent. Further work is necessary to delineate the utility of bacterial or viral identification from nasopharyngeal specimens as diagnostic tools in CAP.http://dx.

In this study, the total 30 respondents were grouped into two categories on the basis of household head (male or female). The average cost of cultivation of one kilogram potato was calculated to be NRs. 14.64 in Panauti municipality of Kavre district, Nepal. The average cost of cultivation in male headed houses (NRs.15.40) was significantly higher to that of female headed houses (NRs.12.53). The major inputs contributing towards the cultivation of potatoes were fertilizers, potato seed and labor respectively. The socio-demographic analysis of the study area demonstrated the overall average age of respondents to be 47.90 years. Moreover, the average household size was 4.73 with average 2.46 male members and 2.27 female members. Also, the study depicted that out of total respondents, 53.33% were Brahmin, 23.33% were Chhetri and remaining 23.33% Janajati. The overall benefit-cost ratio observed was 1.39 where the benefit- cost ratio obtained in male headed house (1.19) was depicted to be significantly lower to that obtained in female headed house (1.93).

The study was conducted during September-November 2020 to assess the economics of early-season cauliflower production and marketing in Dhading district of Nepal. Dhading district was purposely selected as it is one of the pocket area for cauliflower production. The study collected primary information from 60 farmers and 15 traders by using a semi-structured pre-tested questionnaire. The simple descriptive and statistical tools such as Cobb-Douglas production function and benefit-cost ratio were used to analyze the result. The total cost of production of early-season cauliflower was NRs 13588.81 per ropani while the average yield was 727.94 kg per ropani. Further, the gross margin, and net profit per ropani were calculated NRs 25194.54, and NRs 22855.51 respectively. Likewise, the benefit-cost ratio was estimated to be 2.60 that revealed the early season cauliflower production is highly attractive and profitable. The Cobb-Douglas production function showed that cost on manure had a significant contribution in total gross return. The return to scale value was computed to be 0.59 indicating decreasing return to scale in early-season cauliflower. The major marketing channel was found to be Producer-Collector-Wholesaler-Retailer-Consumer with highest price spread of NRs 35/kg. Major problem in the production and marketing of cauliflower was diseases and pests and inappropriate marketing channels. Therefore the finding suggests, productivity and profitability can be maximized if the existing problems of diseases and pests, and quality of seeds are solved and appropriate marketing prices and channel are ensured.