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The objective of this study was to evaluate the antibacterial and anti-inflammatory effect of Bifidobacterium spp. In the first part of the study, the antibacterial activities of live and sonicated cells, from a total of 23 Bifidobacterium species, on the growth of 5 different strain of Staphylococcus aureus. Six strains, of sonicated Bifidobacterium, exhibited antibacterial activity against staphylococci samples, and seven Bifidobacterium strains exhibited antibacterial activity on the growth of S. aureus S.P.-N2. In the second part of the study, we tested the antimicrobial activity, of Bifidobacterium against Propionibacterium acne KCTC3320, using the co-culture method. The loss of P. acnes viability, caused by B. adolescentis SPM0308 and B. longum SPM1207, was 84% and 75%, respectively (*p < 0.05). In the third part of the study, the anti-inflammatory activity of B. adolescentis SPM0308 and B. longum SPM1207 were assessed; nitric oxide (NO), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), production were tested using the murine macrophage RAW 264.7 cell line. Treatment of RAW 264.7 cells, with Bifidobacterium, decreased production of NO and TNF-α rather than LPS (100 ng/mL) treatment. The results suggest that B. adolescentis SPM0308 could be used as an effective control for P. acnes KCTC3320, and S. aureus, and reduce the risk of acne vulgaris development. We suggest that B. adolescentis SPM0308 may be a useful probiotic microorganism, for prevention of acne vulgaris, without adverse effects.

This article considers the decision to purchase insurance against possible losses of a property or wealth. The decision involves a standard economic trade-off between the benefit of protection against loss and the cost of insurance premium. The premium is paid out of the income and decreases the consumption of other goods and services, rather than out of wealth and decreases the property or wealth. The demand for insurance depends mainly on the income and preferences. As a result, unlike in the standard model, a fair premium is neither necessary nor sufficient for the optimality of full coverage insurance. Rather, the individuals with higher incomes purchase full coverage insurance even at unfair prices of insurance while the individuals with lower income purchase partial coverage insurance at a fair price. Copyright The Journal of Risk and Insurance, 2007.