Introduction: This study examined the longitudinal associations between environmental adversity (defined in terms of exposure to violence in the neighborhood, school, and media), complex trauma (operationalized as experiences of abuse and neglect), and adolescents' internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Methods: Using a cross-lagged panel research design, we investigated the moderating role of peer support in these relationships in a sample of 644 adolescents from a severely disadvantaged district of Lima, Peru, who were followed up in a 1-year prospective study. Results and conclusions: We found significant unidirectional dynamic relations, where both types of adversity were associated with higher levels of internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Peer support significantly moderated this effect, but only for complex trauma, in that higher levels of peer support were associated with a decreased impact of complex trauma on internalizing and externalizing symptoms. These findings highlight the importance of social relations and the quality of peer relations in particular as factors that may mitigate the risk of early exposure to trauma.

Studies about trauma often tend to focus on abuse and neglect. However important, these studies may neglect the importance of the broader community context that is often associated with trauma, and complex trauma (CT) in particular. This study aimed to investigate the effects of CT (defined in terms of experiencing abuse and/or neglect occurring in the context of relationships with caregivers), and of broader environmental adversity (i.e. exposure to community violence), in a sample of adolescents (N = 218) from a severely disadvantaged district of Lima, Peru. The study had two aims: (a) to assess the prevalence of CT and its associations with internalizing and externalizing symptoms in these adolescents, and (b) to investigate the associations between community violence and both internalizing and externalizing symptoms over and above the effects of CT. In total, 39.4% of the adolescents reported at least one type of moderate to severe trauma. There was a clear association between CT and both internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Ordinal logistic regressions showed that children who were exposed to one or more traumatic experiences were more likely to score within a higher range of internalizing and externalizing symptoms than children with no history of trauma. Finally, exposure to community violence was an important predictor of symptomatology beyond the effects of CT.Keywords: Childhood Trauma Questionnaire; complex trauma; early adversity; community violence, trauma assessment.Complex trauma (CT) concerns the consequences of multiple experiences of emotional, physical, or sexual abuse, and emotional or physical neglect at an early age within a caregiving context (Bernstein et al., 2003;Mendelsohn et al., 2011;Solomon, 1999). The effects of CT on psychological development and symptomatology have been extensively studied during the past two decades (Anda et al., 2006;Cummings & Berkowitz, 2014;Dong et al., 2004;Dube et al., 2001;Geffner & Tishelman, 2011).Pathogenic environments, in turn, refer to exposure to risky environments (Grigorenko, 2009) at different layers of social interaction, such as the household, the neighborhood, or the school. Pathogenic environments such as poverty, community violence, and household dysfunctions have been shown to negatively influence psychological development and wellbeing (Callahan et al., 2011;Cicchetti, 2004;Cicchetti & Lynch, 1993;Green et al., 2010Green et al., , 2014Hammack, Richards, Luo, Edlynn, & Roy, 2004;Ludwig et al., 2012Ludwig et al., , 2013Páez, Fernández, & Beristain, 2001;Richters & Saltzman, 1990;Taylor et al., 2006;Vanderbilt-Adriance & Shaw, 2009).Furthermore, exposure to community violence during childhood and adolescence has been linked to internalizing and externalizing problems, PTSD, low school engagement, problematic peer relationships, substance abuse, and sexual risk behaviors (Voisin & Berringer, 2015). Internalizing and externalizing symptoms following CT and exposure to violence, are related to over and under-controlled behavior pat...

Research concerning adolescent peer relations and peer attachment is scarce, and more so in Spanish-speaking populations. The aims of this study were twofold: (a) to adapt the Quality of Relationships Inventory (QRI) to Spanish and (b) to assess its psychometric properties in the context of peer relations in a sample of N = 269 Peruvian adolescents. Internal consistency was adequate. The factor structure of the instrument was assessed by means of confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and multidimensional scaling (MDS). Convergent validity was explored by analyzing the associations between the QRI subscales and the peer subscales of the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment (correlations ranged from r = .37 to r = .61) and discriminant validity by exploring the associations between the QRI subscales and both internalizing and externalizing symptoms (correlations ranged from r = .27 to r = .35). Results showed that the QRI on its Spanish version is a reliable tool for the assessment of the quality of peer relationships within a Peruvian context when taking some considerations into account regarding the conflict scale.La investigación sobre relaciones entre pares y apego de pares es escasa, y más aún en las poblaciones de habla hispana. Los objetivos de este estudio fueron: (a) adaptar el Quality of Relationships Inventory al español y (b) evaluar sus propiedades psicométricas en el contexto de las relaciones de pares en una muestra de N = 269 adolescentes peruanos. La consistencia interna fue adecuada. La estructura factorial se evaluó mediante análisis factorial confirmatorio (AFC) y escalamiento multidimensional (MDS). La validez convergente se exploró a través las asociaciones entre las subescalas del QRI y las subescalas de pares del Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment (las correlaciones fueron entre r = 0,37 y r = 0,61) y la validez discriminante, mediante las asociaciones entre las subescalas QRI y síntomas internalizantes y externalizantes (las correlaciones oscilaron entre r = 0,27, y r = 0,35). Los resultados mostraron que el QRI es una herramienta fiable para la evaluación de la calidad de las relaciones adolescentes entre pares dentro de un contexto peruano, tomando en consideración algunas particularidades de la escala de conflicto.Palabras clave: apego de pares, apoyo social, apoyo de pares, Inventario de Calidad de las RelacionesThe Quality of Relationships Inventory (QRI; Pierce, 1994; was developed as an alternative to the existing instruments of social support which only addressed general perceptions of available support. The QRI differentiates itself by the assessment of relationship-specific perceptions of available social support, interpersonal conflict, and relationship depth for each of several significant relationships. This added value allows the instrument to explore attachment bonds among different relationships, such as family members, romantic partners, friends, and peers .

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