The role of semen in heterosexual transmission of the HIV-1 has been marginally viewed as an inert vehicle for the delivery of virus. However, studies from the field of reproductive biology have made it clear that seminal fluid is a complex and dynamic medium containing high concentrations of factors that play key roles in modulating the local immune response in the female reproductive tract during fertilization and embryogenesis. It is therefore strongly implied that the same seminal factors responsible for guiding the immune response in reproduction also play a role in male-to-female transmission of HIV-1. To begin to understand how these factors affect male-to-female HIV-1 transmission, multiple studies have comparatively profiled the contents of seminal fluid collected from uninfected and HIV-1-infected men. This review provides an overview of these studies, as well as a discussion of the potential impact of semen on HIV-1 transmission.
erative medicine, cancer therapy, and vaccine delivery involve the noninvasive application of uniform nonequilibrium plasma (including dielectric barrier discharge plasma) to living skin. Whereas most investigations have focused on achieving desired therapeutic outcomes, fewer studies have examined the mechanisms and pathways by which epithelial cells respond to NTP exposure. Using a transwell apical-basolateral-chambered system to culture the human keratinocyte HaCaT cell line, in vitro experiments were performed to demonstrate the effects of nanosecond-pulsed dielectric barrier discharge (nsDBD) plasma on polarized epithelial cell viability, monolayer permeability, intracellular oxidative stress, and the release of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Application of nsDBD plasma at 60 Hz or below had minimal or no effect on HaCaT monolayer viability or permeability. nsDBD plasma exposure did, however, result in frequency-dependent reductions in intracellular glutathione (indicating direct induction of oxidative stress by nsDBD plasma) and increased extracellular ATP concentrations in the basolateral (subepithelial) media, which are indicators of cellular stress and an NTP-induced
Human semen is a complex medium containing high concentrations of cytokines, chemokines, and growth factors that play key roles in orchestrating immune responses during reproduction. These factors are essential to establishing conditions that facilitate fertilization and embryogenesis through modulation of local immune responses in the female reproductive tract. Typically, semen initiates a biphasic process of inflammation that is gradually resolved, leading to immune cell recruitment pivotal to clearing excess sperm and establishing tolerance of the fetal allograft. However, the identity and concentration of factors found in semenmay be altered in the male reproductive tract as a consequence of sexually transmitted infections and infertility conditions. As a result, imbalances in semen content can skew the secretory response of the cervicovaginal epithelium after deposition during heterosexual intercourse, which may distort local immune activity and lead to embryo rejection or enhanced pathogen transmission. Recognizing the array of factors contained in semen and the degree to which they vary is an essential part of understanding the impact of variations in semen content on reproductive biology and the transmission of sexually transmitted disease pathogens.
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