The present study examined the development of phonological and reading skills in 171 students (98 males, 73 females) from the beginning of first grade (Time 1) to the end of second grade (Time 4). Based on their reading and intelligence scores at the end of second grade, these students were placed into nondisabled (ND), reading disabled (RD), or garden-variety poor reading (GV) groups. Although each group made gains in phonological processing, large differences were found between the ND and RD/GV groups. The RD and GV groups performed similarly on many of the tasks. Consistent with the literature, it was found that intelligence does not differentiate between good and poor readers. The most important finding of the present study was that reader-group membership at Time 4 could be very accurately determined from students' Time 1 scores. All of the children in the RD and GV groups were correctly identified, and only 3 of the 148 ND children were misclassified, indicating that children at risk for reading difficulties can be very accurately identified very early in their academic experiences.

Equipping elementary (i.e., grades K-5) teachers with adequate content and pedagogical knowledge to promote effective reading instruction based on the science of reading is a crucial piece of the reading education puzzle. We reviewed 20 empirical studies to examine the impact of teacher preparation and training programs on elementary teachers' knowledge of the science of reading, focusing on the foundational pillars of reading instruction, namely, phonological and phonemic awareness, phonics, and morphological awareness, as well as student outcomes in reading. We also identified program characteristics that promoted positive growth in teacher knowledge. Generally, findings support the effectiveness of training and preparation programs in increasing elementary teachers' knowledge of foundational constructs. Training in which teachers have the opportunity to apply their learned knowledge and skills under expert guidance produced the largest growth in teacher knowledge. Implications of findings are discussed.A ll students have the right to learn to read and, thus, the right to have access to knowledgeable literacy educators (International Literacy Association [ILA], 2019; UNESCO, n.d.) who under stand the science of reading, or "the accumulated knowledge about reading, reading development, and best practices for reading instruction obtained by the use of the scientific method" (Petscher et al., 2020, p. S268). Theoretical propositions such as the componential model of reading (Aaron, Joshi, Gooden, & Bentum, 2008) and the lattice model of the development of reading comprehension (Connor, 2016) highlight the importance of classroom factors in reading development, such as teachers' ability to plan and manage instructional activity, and the qual ity of literacy instruction. However, effective literacy instruction is quite complex (Connor et al., 2009) and should consider students' home learning environment, previous background knowledge and experi ences, and effective instructional methods that will produce the highest results for each child (Connor, 2016). Thus, teachers must possess a depth of knowledge, including content and pedagogical knowledge, and understand how to be socially just and culturally responsive in their practice (Mosley Wetzel et al., 2020).In their recent article pertaining to teacher preparation, Hoffman, Hikida, and Sailors (2020) pointed out that over 600 empirical studies on literacy teacher preparation were published between 1999 and 2018. These studies examined teachers' knowledge and practice through a wide range of methodologies and lenses, which was necessary given the complexity of effective literacy instruction. Hoffman et al. also argued

Oral reading fluency (ORF) deficits are a hallmark of reading difficulties. The impact of fluency struggles extends beyond word-level difficulties to include deficits in reading comprehension. Sixteen empirical studies conducted in 2000–2019 that examined ORF interventions among elementary students identified as having reading difficulties were reviewed to identify the characteristics (e.g., instructional variables, group size, type of interventionist) of effective ORF interventions and their impact on English oral reading fluency and reading comprehension outcomes. The systematic review revealed that interventions reported centered around repeated reading procedures (86.5%). Across the 16 studies, outcomes for oral reading fluency varied widely and most focused on speed and rate aspects rather than prosody. Effect sizes for rate and accuracy measures ranged from negligible to large (i.e., 0.01 to 1.18) and three studies found large effects for prosody outcomes. Effect sizes for reading comprehension ranged between non-significant and large significant effects. Findings support the use of repeated reading of text to build up ORF of students with reading difficulties. Interventions that were found to be most effective were those that were conducted one-on-one with a trained model of fluent word reading and accuracy. Findings also point to three gaps in our understanding: (1) the efficacy of interventions other than repeated reading, (2) effects of ORF interventions on prosody outcomes, and (3) sustainability of outcomes.

This paper is in response to the manuscript entitled, "Success, failure and emotions: Examining the relationship between performance feedback and emotions in diagnostic reasoning," (Jarrell et al. in Educ Technol Res Dev 65:1263-1284, 2017) from a K-12 student perspective. Jarrell et al.'s (2017) noted a strong relationship between outcome emotions and performance tasks where high performing medical students resulted in the most positive emotions. Researchers indicated that medical students who experienced negative emotions led to negative outcomes such as loss of confidence or dropping out of school. In turn, these results can be translated to students in grades K-12 who find themselves more regularly in an online learning environment. This perspective suggests ways Jarrell et al.'s (2017) conclusions can inform educators as they consider the important role emotions play in digital learning. Special consideration should be given to the importance of connection between student and teacher, as well as the unique challenges faced by students identified with learning disabilities. Keywords Computer-based learning • Student emotions • Student teacher connection • Online learningShifting to a computer-based learning environment (CBLE) given the current world situation is essential to maintain progress for students in grades K through 12; however, it poses some considerable challenges for students, families, and teachers. Based on the paper by Jarrell et al. (2017), emotions are tied to achievement outcomes that play a role in learning and performance in academic situations. Emotions are an important consideration that must be measured for all involved. There is a healthy level of anxiety that causes us to prepare and persist through difficult tasks; however, when left unattended, it can interfere with all aspects of learning leaving lasting and detrimental effects (Pekrun 2006).Jarrell et al. ( 2017) looked specifically at performance feedback and its emotional impact on students in a CBLE. This idea was used to examine emotional responses to determine if learners can be grouped in a useful way and to observe significant performance differences between groups. As hypothesized, researchers observed two distinct

This teaching tip aims to build awareness of using a text’s structure as a framework for building students’ reading comprehension. The authors detail the Framework for Accelerating the Strategic Comprehension of Text (FASCT) to support elementary students reading comprehension abilities by explicitly teaching students to use the structure of a text to support the development of a main idea statement after every text read. FASCT then teaches students to expand this main idea statement into a summary by adding key supporting details. Furthermore, this teaching tip outlines how teachers can implement FASCT instruction using any genre of text. Although comprehension instruction, such as FASCT, is only one part of the overall literacy block, it may be essential for building a solid foundation from which students’ complex comprehension skills can grow.