With the development of laboratory animal science, increasing attention has been given 14 to the possible influence of housing and husbandry on the behaviour and welfare of 15 laboratory animals as well as on the scientific integrity. With the present paper, we aim 16 to contribute to this knowledge by reviewing existing literature on how social factors 17 influence laboratory rodents and non-human primates. We use social ecology in the 18 wild as a starting point to understand experimental studies of these social species. 19Laboratory studies show that preweaning social experiences, and lack thereof, affect the 20 development of social skills and capacity to cope with stressful situations in both 21 primates and rodents. Studies of deprivation, of preference and of demand indicate that 22 both rodents and primates are highly motivated to interact with conspecifics. When 23 housed alone, rodents and primates typically show a more 'anxious' reaction in 24 behaviour tests, and are more profoundly affected by certain stressors, although there 25 seem to be some differences in how rodent males and females react to different social 26 situations. However, for social housing to be beneficial for the animals, compatible and 27 stable groups are crucial. When forming groups of monkeys in captivity, the age and 28 sex of individuals and their relative age difference, the taxonomic membership of the 29 animals as well as the introductory technique are factors of importance for success. 30Kinship is also of importance for the compatibility of both rodent and primate groups. 31Published in Applied Animal Behaviour Science 103, 229-254, 2007 Final manuscript version 2 Social instability through changes of group composition is apparently stressful, resulting 32 in behavioural and physiological alterations in both rodents and primates. The effects of 33 social conditions around testing have been given much less attention, but several studies 34show that animals react differently in behaviour tests when tested in group than when 35 tested individually. Altogether, the most commonly used laboratory rodents and 36 primates belong to social species, and their behaviour and welfare are strongly affected 37 by previous and present social environment. Factors such as group composition and 38 stability, rank and previous social experience therefore need to be taken into account 39 both when designing housing systems and when planning experiments and interpreting 40 results. 41 42

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Abstract. This review discusses the benefits of training in the effective management of laboratory-housed nonhuman primates, including improved welfare, facilitated husbandry, improved quality of data, and human–animal relationships. Training implies that the animals cooperate in aspects of their own care and is a type of enrichment. Some refined ways of using negative reinforcement are discussed, as well as management perspectives on laboratory primate training. Several approaches to dealing with fear are described: systematic desensitization/counterconditioning (SD/CC) versus combined reinforcement training (NPRT). In addition, a detailed shaping plan covering target training, useful when e.g. moving, weighing, or stationing animals, is presented.

The stress associated with transportation of non-human primates used in scientific research is an important but almost unexplored part of laboratory animal husbandry. The procedures and routines concerning transport are not only important for the animals' physical health but also for their mental health as well. The transport stress in cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) was studied in two experiments. In Experiment 1, 25 adult female cynomolgus monkeys were divided into five groups of five animals each that received different diets during the transport phase of the experiment. All animals were transported in conventional single animal transport cages with no visual or tactile contact with conspecifics. The animals were transported by lorry for 24 h at ambient temperatures ranging between 20 degrees C and 35 degrees C. Urine produced before, during and after transport was collected and analysed for cortisol by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). All monkeys exhibited a significant increase in cortisol excretion per time unit during the transport and on the first day following transport.Although anecdotal reports concerning diet during transport, including the provision of fruits and/or a tranquiliser, was thought likely to influence stress responses, these were not corrobated by the present study. In Experiment 2, behavioural data were collected from 18 cynomolgus macaques before and after transfer from group cages to either single or pair housing, and also before and after a simulated transport, in which the animals were housed in transport cages. The single housed monkeys were confined to single transport cages and the pair housed monkeys were kept in their pairs in double size cages. Both pair housed and singly housed monkeys showed clear behavioural signs of stress soon after their transfer out of their group cages.However, stress-associated behaviours were more prevalent in singly housed animals than in pair housed animals, and these behaviours persisted for a longer time after the simulated transport housing event than in the pair housed monkeys. Our data confirm that the transport of cynomolgus monkeys is stressful and suggest that it would be beneficial for the cynomolgus monkeys to be housed and transported in compatible pairs from the time they leave their group cages at the source country breeding facility until they arrive at their final laboratory destination in the country of use.