The relation between an individual and society has been customarily perceived as inexorably antagonistic, constituting a source of potential, yet with conflict and struggle almost bound to happen. Consequently, an individual is portrayed as having to come to terms with frequently inconsistent expectations of the community and contradictory, or stereotypical, social roles that the world at large imposes. However, the writings of the philosopher Hannah Arendt remind us that it has not necessarily always been like that. Arendt indicates that during Roman times the phrases " 'to live' and 'to be among men' (inter homines esse)" and "'to die' or 'to cease to be among men' (inter homines esse sinere)" were employed interchangeably as verbal equivalents (7-8).In The Human Condition (1958), Arendt comments on two dimensions that characterize the functioning of an individual in society:Human plurality, the basic condition of both action and speech, has the twofold character of equality and distinction. If men were not equal, they could neither understand each other and those who came before them nor plan for the future and foresee the needs of those who came [or] will come after them. If men were not distinct, each human being distinguished from any other who is, was, or will ever be, they would need neither speech nor action to make themselves understood. (175 -76) Paula Meehan, in the poem "Reading the Sky," has phrased this "twofold character" of human plurality in a very similar way, arguing that "We glean a common language / to describe our differing fates" (Reading 13). Much in the same vein, in his book Culture and Power: The Sociology of Pierre Bourdieu, David Swartz claims that "Bourdieu's conceptual formulation KATARZYNA POLOCZEK "Sharing Our Differences": Individuality and Community in the Early Work of Paula Meehan
I have dedicated this monograph to my Mother whose unremitting and unfailing support "empowered" me to work on this book. Many thanks to my fiancé for not losing faith in me and for his patience. Over the years, while conducting my research on contemporary Irish women's poets, I have encountered many inspiring and helpful people to whom I am sincerely indebted for their advice, wisdom and encouragement. With regard to this book, my special thanks are directed to Michaela Schrage-Früh, her husband David and Frederic for their hospitality and kindness. I would like to thank Przemysław Ostalski for his help with typesetting of the book, and Richard O'Callaghan Ph.D. for proofreading of the earlier versions of the text. Last but not least, I would like to express my gratitude to Professor Jerzy Jarniewicz for inspiring me to read poetry.The first and perhaps most striking is our interest in understanding the ways men dominate women, an interest that remains the impetus of much feminist research . . . .a second feminist concern with power: our interest in understanding the power that women do havethat is, empowerment . . . . The third interest that feminist theorists bring to the discussion of power comes in the wake of charges that the mainstream feminist movement has marginalized women of color, lesbians, and working-class women. . . . That is, we have an interest in theorizing the kind of collective power that can bridge the diversity of individuals who make up the feminist movement. (The Power 122) 1. Women matter as much as men do. 2. Women have the right to determine their lives. 3. Women's experiences matter. 4. Women have the right to tell the truth about their experiences. 5.Women deserve . . . respect, self-respect, education, safety, health, representation, money. (Fire with Fire 138)One of the broadest and the least controversial explanations of female empowerment is provided by Miller:My own working definition of power is the capacity to produce a changethat is, to move anything from point A or state A to point B or state B. This can even include moving one's own thoughts or emotions, sometimes a very powerful act. It can include acting to create movement in an interpersonal field, as well as acting in larger realms such as economic, social, or political arenas.("Women and Power" 198), emphasis original Hence as argued in Hannah Arendt and Human Rights: The Predicament of Common Responsibility (2006), "The 'I am able' must be understood as the ability to act in a public space, to move in a space of freedom with others" 2 The first two types of power are elaborated in Allen's writing on the basis of Foucault and Butler (the empowerment phase). Her most vital contribution to power discourse is showing the coexistence of various aspects of power and their mutual interdependence. Allen's approach to feminism means bringing into focus the idea of women's coalition-building and solidarity, as illustrated on the example of Arendt's philosophy.3 Furthermore, Arendt argues that "[power] derives its legitimacy fro...
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