Music-based interventions have become increasingly popular. However, little is known about the effect of music on spatial reasoning skills and mindfulness. Further, even less is known about how classical music influences the ability of African Americans to enhance spatial reasoning skills and to develop mindfully attentive awareness. Mindfulness is defined as the state of being attentive to and aware of what is taking place in the present moment. Spatial reasoning refers to the ability to mentally manipulate objects or physically navigate through space. The purpose of the present study was to examine whether these concepts were correlated by analyzing posttest data collected from individuals exposed to a receptive music program for various lengths of time (30 min, 3, 6, and 12 weeks, respectively). Seventy-six African Americans ranging from 18 to 65 years of age (M = 26) participated in our research. We predicted that daily, long-term listening to classical music would lead to a positive relationship between mindfulness measured using the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS) and spatial reasoning measured using the Spatial Ability Practice Test 1 (SAPT1). A statistically significant moderate correlation (r(17) = .495, p = .026) was observed between MAAS and SAPT1 posttest scores for participants in the 12-week condition. A repeated-measures multivariate analysis of variance also indicated a statistically significant difference between mindfulness and spatial ability scores on the combined dependent measures obtained from individuals in each music condition (F(3, 72) = 42.812, Wilk’s Lambda = .975, p = .001, partial eta-squared = .372). Post hoc test showed that scores obtained for the 30-min and 12-week conditions were significantly different, as were scores from the 3-week and 12-week conditions (Tukey, HSD). Our findings supported the hypothesis tested, and the results have implications in higher education and other professions.

Objective: State of Washington v. Sisouvanh (2012) was the first case in which an appellate court asserted the need for cultural competence in competency-to-stand-trial evaluations. A court reiterated this need in State of Washington v. Ortiz-Abrego (2017). Research in forensic psychology seldom addressed cultural considerations in pretrial evaluations until this past decade, but the growing body of literature pales in comparison to the work found in clinical and counseling psychology. Most of the current literature acknowledges the lack of professionally sanctioned practice guidelines and makes valuable suggestions regarding how to address cultural factors that are relevant to the requisite capacities of legal competency. Yet, none of this research addresses potential risks incurred by the evaluators who attempt to incorporate these suggestions into practice or acknowledges the possible incompatibility between forensic and cultural competency principles. Hypotheses: The authors posit there may be areas of incompatability, or tension, between the tenets of forensic psychology and cultural competency. Method: To examine this potential incompatibility, we reviewed legal cases with cultural implications, addressed recent developments regarding cultural "incompetence," and conducted an overview of cultural competency in clinical and forensic psychology. Results: Comparing general principles of forensic psychology with those of cultural responsiveness and humility, we found that questions emerged regarding the potential philosophical conflicts as well as risks that may be incurred by individual evaluators in legal settings. Conclusions: The resultant dilemma sets the stage for pragmatic suggestions regarding communication, assessment, and diagnosis. Finally, we emphasize the need for sanctioned practice guidelines. Public Significance StatementThe field of forensic psychology must reconcile the potential incompatibility between forensic and cultural competency principles to better support forensic professionals in their practice. We encourage practitioners to utilize existing methods and tools to integrate cultural factors, and we call on professional organizations involved in forensic psychology to assist in clarifying how to operationalize social responsiveness within the field.